Brazil Education
Primary education in Brazil is free and compulsory for children between
the ages of 7 and 14. Approximately 80 percent of the population aged 15
or more years is literate.
 Brazil
(Portuguese Brasil), federal republic, the largest country in South
America, occupying nearly one-half of the entire area of the continent.
It is bounded on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French
Guiana, and the Atlantic Ocean; on the east by the Atlantic Ocean; on
the south by Uruguay; on the west by Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia, and
Peru; and on the northwest by Colombia. The republic has a common
frontier with every country of South America except Chile and Ecuador.
Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world (after Russia, China,
Canada, and the United States).
 The
total area of Brazil is 8, 511, 966 sq km (3, 286, 500 sq mi); its maximum
north-south distance is about 4345 km (about 2700 mi), and its maximum
east-west distance is about 4330 km (about 2690 mi). Most of the people
of Brazil live near the Atlantic Ocean, notably in the great cities of
Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, but the capital is inland, at Brasilia
(1991 estimate 1, 841, 028). The country, which was once a Portuguese
dependency, is the world's leading producer of coffee, and it also
contains great mineral resources; exploitation of many of these
resources intensified during the 1980s.
Land and Resources
 A
vast region of highlands, known as the Brazilian highlands or Brazilian
plateau, and the basin of the Amazon River are the dominant
physiographic features of Brazil. The plateau is an eroded tableland
occupying most of the southeastern half of the country. With a general
elevation of about 305 to 915 m (about 1000 to 3000 ft), this tableland
is irregularly ridged by mountain ranges and dissected by numerous river
valleys. Its southeastern edge, generally parallel to the coast, rises
abruptly from the ocean in various areas, particularly north of latitude
10º south and south of latitude 20º south. Among the principal ranges of
the Brazilian plateau are the Serra da Mantiqueira, the Serra do Mar,
and the Serra Geral. Elevations in these and the other ranges average
under about 1220 m (about 4000 ft), but several of the ranges are
surmounted by lofty peaks, including Pico da Bandeira (2890 m/9482 ft),
in the Serra da Mantiqueira, and Pedra (2232 m/7323 ft), in the Serra do Mar. Much of the tableland terrain consists of rolling prairies
(campos), and extensive tracts are forested.
The
basin of the Amazon River occupies more than one-third of the surface of
the country. Lowlands predominate in the Amazon Basin; elevations rarely
exceed about 150 m (about 500 ft), and swamps and floodplains occupy
vast areas of the region. Large parts of the basin are covered by
tropical rain forests (selvas). Because of the impenetrability of this
growth, huge areas of the Brazilian lowlands have only recently been
explored. On the northern edge of the Amazon Basin is another
mountainous area, part of the uplift known as the Guiana Highlands;
ranges include the Serra
 Tumucumaque,
with elevations up to about 915 m (about 3000 ft), the Serra AcaRaúl
(maximum elevation, about 460 m/about 1500 ft), and the Serra Parima
(maximum elevation, about 1525 m/about 5000 ft). Pico da Neblina (3014
m/9888 ft), at the border with Venezuela, is the highest point in
Brazil.
The Brazilian coastline, with a total length of some 9655 km (some 6000
mi), has singularly regular contours, particularly in the north, but
several deep indentations provide excellent natural harbors. Especially
noteworthy are the harbors of Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, and Recife.
Excluding sections in which the Brazilian Plateau projects into the
Atlantic Ocean, the coast is fringed by a narrow coastal plain.
Rivers
More than two-thirds of Brazil is drained by the Amazon and Tocantins
rivers, about one-fifth by the Rio de la Plata system, and the remainder by
the Sao Francisco River and smaller streams. The length of the Amazon from Iquitos in Peru to its mouth on the
northeastern coast of Brazil is about 3700 km (about 2300 mi), all
navigable by ocean going ships. The most important navigable streams in
the plateau region are the São Francisco and Parna?a rivers. The former
stream is interrupted about 305 km (about 190 mi) above its mouth by the
Paulo Afonso Falls, but its upper course is navigable for more than 1450
km (900 mi). The San Francisco River is also used for irrigation. The Parnaiba, which, like most of the streams traversing the highlands,
contains falls and rapids, is navigable for about 645 km (about 400 mi),
less than half its length. Rapids also impede navigation in the Uruguay
River. One of the chief streams of the La Plata system, it flows through
Brazilian territory for more than 965 km (more than 600 mi) and forms
most of the Brazilian-Argentine border. The other great La Plata system
streams flowing through Brazil are the Paraguai and the Alto Paranço
rivers, both important inland waterways.
Climate
Climatic conditions in Brazil range from tropical to sub temperate. The
average January and July temperatures in Brasilia are 22. 3º C (72º F)
and 19. 8º C (68º F), respectively. The averages in Rio de Janeiro for
the same months are 28. 5º C (83º F) and 19. 6º C (67º F). Average annual
precipitation in Brasilia is 1603 mm (63 in), and in Rio de Janeiro it
is 1758 mm (69 in). Tropical conditions prevail also over most of that
portion of the coastal plain lying to the north of the Tropic of
Capricorn, but oceanic winds have a moderating effect on the high
temperatures and humidity. The annual rainfall in this part of the
coastal belt varies between 1041 and 2286 m (41 and 90 in). In the
coastal region south of the Tropic of Capricorn, climatic conditions are
marked by sharp seasonal variations. Winter temperatures as low as -5. 6º C (22º
F) are occasionally recorded in the extreme south, and frosts are
common throughout the region. Precipitation averages less than 1016 mm
(40 in) annually in the southern part of the coastal belt. In the east
central Brazilian uplands the climate is subtropical but, because of the
higher altitudes, sharp diurnal variations of temperature occur and the
nights are cool. This region is frequently subject to severe droughts.
In the highlands to the south and west, precipitation ranges from
adequate to abundant. Temperatures vary between subtropical and
temperate in the southeastern highlands, which is the most densely
populated section of the country.
Natural Resources
Although the area under cultivation totals only about 62 million
hectares (about 153 million acres), or less than 7. 5 percent of the
total land area, Brazil is an important agricultural country. It has
immense timber resources, the forest areas covering some 5. 7 million sq
km (2. 2 million sq mi). Mineral resources are extensive, including
quartz crystal, industrial diamonds, chrome, iron ore, phosphates, coal,
manganese, petroleum, mica, graphite, titanium, copper, gold, oil,
bauxite, zinc, tin, and mercury.
Plants and Animals
The flora of Brazil is highly diversified, particularly in the Amazon
Basin. Hundreds of species of plant life, including bignonias, laurels,
myrtles, and mimosas, abound in this region. Palms and hardwoods are
abundant, as are plants of the Euphorbiaceae family (one of the chief
sources of crude rubber). Mangroves, cacaos, dwarf palms, and
brazilwoods thrive in the coastal region. Among the indigenous and
widely cultivated fruits are the pineapple, fig, custard apple, mango,
banana, guava, grape, and orange. Vegetation in the river valleys of the
plateau region is luxuriant, but in the highlands the forests,
consisting largely of deciduous species, are far less dense. This
section also has extensive tracts of bushes and open plains. Coniferous
trees thrive in those areas where temperate climatic conditions prevail.
In the arid sections of the plateau region, cacti and other spiny plants
are common.
The animal life of Brazil is also extremely varied and differs in many
respects from that of North America and the eastern hemisphere. Larger
animals include the puma, jaguar, ocelot, the rare bush dog, and foxes.
Peccary, tapir, anteater, sloth, opossum, and armadillo are abundant.
Deer are plentiful in the south, and monkeys of many species abound in
the selva. Many varieties of birds are indigenous to the country. The
reptilian fauna includes several species of alligator and numerous
species of snake, notably the bushmaster, fer-de-lance, and boa. Fish
and turtle abound in the rivers, lakes, and coastal waters of Brazil.
Soils
The soil is primarily tropical and subtropical terra rosa (red earth).
Amazonia, the valley of the Amazon and its tributaries, is a vast
alluvial plain in which flooding continually washes away and replenishes
topsoil. A number of low alluvial plateaus, however, can be found above
normal floor levels. Some inland regions of the northeast are semiarid.
In lowland areas, the soil supports dense rain forests. The state of Sao Paulo is marked by fertile, almost purple, terra rosa, because of basalt
decomposition accelerated by heat and humidity.
Population
Approximately 22 percent of the population of Brazil is composed of
mulattoes. People of Portuguese descent are the second largest group (15
percent), followed by mestizos (people of mixed European and Native
American stock, 12 percent), Italian (11 percent), black (11 percent),
and Spanish (10 percent), with the remaining 19 percent made up of other
groups including Germans, Japanese, and Native Americans.
Population Characteristics
The population of Brazil (1993 estimate) is 156, 664, 223. The overall
population density is about 18 per sq km (about 48 per sq mi). About 75
percent of the population of Brazil is urban.
Political Divisions
The republic is composed of 26 states and the federal district. The
states are Acre, Alagoas, Amap? Amazonas, Bahia, CeaRíoEspírito Santo,
Goiás, Maranh?, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, PaRíoPará, Paranço Pernambuco, Piau? Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Norte,
Rio Grande do Sul, Rondèsia, Roraima, Santa Catarina, Sao Paulo, Sergipe,
and Tocantins. The federal district includes Brasilia, which replaced
Rio de Janeiro as the national capital in 1960.
The largest city is Sao Paulo, center of Brazilian industry, with a
population (1991 estimate) of 9, 700, 111. Other leading cities, with
their estimated 1991 populations, include Rio de Janeiro, the former
capital of the country and a commercial center (5, 487, 346); Porto Alegre,
an Atlantic port (1, 254, 642); Salvador, a port located in a fertile
agricultural region (2, 075, 392); Belem, a chief port on the lower Amazon
River (1, 235, 625); Recife, chief commercial city of the central region
(1, 335, 684); Curitiba (1, 248, 395); Belo Horizonte, hub of a
cotton-raising region (2, 103, 330); and Manaus, a port on the Negro River
(996, 716).
Religion
Nearly 88 percent of the inhabitants of Brazil are Roman Catholic. About
20 million Catholics are also Spiritists in some form. There are also at
least 5 million Protestants, including substantial numbers of Lutherans,
Methodists, and Episcopalians, and a small community of Jews. Most
Native Americans follow traditional religions. Separation of church and
state is formal and complete.
Language
Portuguese is the official language of Brazil. German and Italian are
spoken by many Brazilians, especially in the cities of the south.
Elementary and Secondary Schools
More than 26. 8 million pupils attended Brazilian primary schools each
year in the late 1980s, and some 3. 3 million students were enrolled in
secondary schools. Primary and secondary schools are maintained
primarily by states and municipalities, but many Roman Catholic-run high
schools are also here.
Universities and Colleges
The central government of Brazil shares with the states and private
associations the responsibility for institutions of higher learning. In
the late 1980s Brazil contained more than 850 such institutions
(including 73 universities), which had a combined annual enrollment of
about 1. 4 million students. Among the leading universities were the
University of Brasilia (1961) in Brasilia; the University of Sao Paulo
(1934); the Pontifical Catholic University of Campinas (1941); the
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (1920); and the Pontifical Catholic
University of Rio Grande do Sul (1948), in Porto Alegre. Other
institutions include schools of medicine, public health, law, social
sciences, engineering, and mining.
Culture
The culture of modern Brazil has been formed from a rich background of
ethnic traditions. The early Portuguese settlers borrowed many customs
and words from the original Native American population. During the
colonial period millions of black African slaves who were brought into
Brazil added an African element to Brazilian cultural life; their
religious rites merged with Roman Catholicism to form the unique
Afro-Brazilian cult, notable for its exotic ceremonies. The most
influential of these cults is Candomble.
Brazil, however, is a predominantly European-formed society, settled
largely by the Portuguese, Italians, Germans, and Spaniards. These
European origins are the bases of Brazilian family life, which is a
rigid and patriarchal structure that permeates all areas of Brazilian
life. Within this century, cultural ties between Brazil and the United
States have significantly increased.
Libraries and Museums
Most states maintain public libraries in their capital cities; some have
suburban branches. Most cities have public library systems. In Rio de
Janeiro, the National Archive (1838) contains a collection primarily
concerned with Brazilian history. The National Library (1810), also in
Rio de Janeiro, holds some 5, 789, 000 books, 672, 000 manuscripts, 80, 000
engravings and maps, and many periodicals. The library serves as the
national copyright register.
In Rio de Janeiro are the Museum of Modern Art (founded in 1948), which
houses collections from many countries and offers courses of study,
concerts, and films; the National Museum (1818), which has about 1. 5
million specimens on exhibit, most of which concern geology, botany, and
anthropology; and the Museum of the Indian (1953). Most larger cities
have municipal museums.
Literature
See BRAZILIAN LITERATURE.
Art
Sculpture flourished during the 18th and 19th centuries in Brazil. Much
of the work included striking religious figures. Most Brazilian art
before the 20th century was anonymous, but the influence of this work
has been strong, and traces can be seen in the work of contemporary
Brazilian artists. The painter Candido Portinari, in a mural executed
for the United Nations headquarters in New York City, clearly shows
these earlier influences.
Many contemporary Brazilian artists have taken unmistakably
individualistic directions that have received international recognition.
Brasilia, the capital, has been acclaimed for its striking modern
architecture, the chief designer of which was the Brazilian architect
Oscar Niemeyer.
Music
Heitor Villa-Lobos is considered perhaps the most gifted Brazilian
composer. His works are based largely on Brazilian folk themes. The
Brazilian soprano Bid'say? has been a foremost interpreter of his
music. Brazil has a rich folk music tradition that synthesizes elements
of African and Portuguese traditional music. A Brazilian ballroom dance,
the samba, was introduced to the United States in 1938. Its music, based
on that of African-derived folk dances, became popular and eventually
developed into the even more popular bossa nova. The infectious melodies
and rhythms of the bossa nova have been performed by such entertainers
as the guitarist and singer João Gilberto. Among contemporary composers
are Luis Bonfa and Antonio Carlos Jobim, who created the score for the
film Black Orpheus.
Economy
Once a predominantly agricultural nation, Brazil experienced rapid
industrial growth in the 1960s and 1970s, so that by the 1980s it had a
diversified modern economy. Great quantities of iron ore and coal were
mined, and the output of steel, chemicals, and motor vehicles increased
substantially. At the same time, however, chronic inflation and a
foreign debt of more than $100 billionçothe highest of any developing
nationçoposed severe economic problems. In the late 1980s the annual
national budget included about $15. 7 billion in revenue and $25. 1
billion in expenditure. The country's debt was restructured and reduced
in April 1994 in an agreement with debtor banks.
Agriculture
About one-fourth of the world's coffee is grown on the plantations of
Sao Paulo, Paranço Espírito Santo, and Minas Gerais. Annual coffee
production in the late 1980s was about 1. 3 million metric tons, much of
which was exported. Brazil ranks among world leaders in the production
of sugarcane (which is used to produce not only refined sugar but also
alcohol for fuel), castor beans, cocoa, corn, and oranges. Other
important crops are soybeans, tobacco, potatoes, cotton, rice, wheat,
cassava, and bananas.
Livestock is raised in nearly all parts of the country, particularly in
Sao Paulo and other southern states, where there are vast numbers of
cattle, swine, poultry, sheep, goats, horses, asses, mules, and oxen.
Forestry and Fishing
The valuable products of the Brazilian forests include tung, rubber,
carnauba wax, caroa fiber, medicinal leaves, vegetable oils, resins,
nuts, and building and cabinet woods. Important timber resources include
the parançopine, the most important commercially, and the pepper tree.
The lumbering industry developed rapidly during the 1970s and 1980s as
much of the forestland was cleared for settlement.
The fishing industry, although hampered at first by lack of capital,
storage facilities, and canneries, grew considerably in the 1970s. In
the late 1980s the catch was about 793, 000 metric tons annually,
including shrimp, lobsters, and sardines.
Mining
Mineral resources in Brazil are extensive, but scarcity of capital and
inadequate transportation facilities retarded development until the
1970s. Coal is mined in Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, and
elsewhere. A gold rush in the Amazon Jungle, unabated since 1979, has
made Brazil one of the world's largest producers. The country's iron
deposits, at Itabira and elsewhere, are among the world's richest.
Iron-ore output was about 134 million metric tons in the late 1980s.
Rich tin deposits have made Brazil a leading producer of the metal.
Quartz crystals, monazite, and beryllium are also major exports.
Manganese, industrial diamonds, chromium, zirconium, crude petroleum,
natural gas, silver, bauxite, and mica are produced in considerable
quantities. Brazil's valuable deposits of magnesite, graphite, titanium,
copper, zinc, mercury, and platinum are not exploited on a large scale.
Manufacturing
Brazil's manufacturing industries produce a vast array of products.
Large amounts of such goods as processed food, iron and steel, cement,
textiles, clothing, motor vehicles, chemicals, paper, ships, and
electric equipment are produced. Sao Paulo is the leading industrial
state, with factories producing about one-third of the total amount of
manufactures of Brazil; the cities of Rio de Janeiro, Belo Horizonte,
Porto Alegre, and Fortaleza also are major manufacturing centers.
Energy
In the late 1980s more than 90 percent of Brazil's annual output of
electricity was generated by hydroelectric facilities. Major
hydroelectric plants were situated on the Parançoand São Francisco
rivers and on the Rio Grande. A great hydroelectric installation, on the
Parançoat Itaipu, was completed in the mid-1980s, as was the country's
first nuclear power plant. Brazil had an installed electricity
generating capacity of about 47. 2 million kw in the late 1980s, and
annual production totaled about 202 billion kwh.
Currency and Banking
The basic unit of currency is the cruzicro, introduced in March 1990 and
equivalent to the new cruzado (617. 28 cruzicros equal U. S. $1; 1994). The
Central Bank of Brazil (1965), headquartered in Brasilia, issues the
country's currency. Other major banking institutions include the Bank of
Brazil, a commercial bank with more than 3300 branches; the National
Bank of Economic and Social Development, headquartered in Rio de
Janeiro; and the Brazilian Discount Bank, with over 1700 branches.
Brazilians are also served by many other private and state banks.
Commerce and Trade
In the late 1980s Brazil spent about $20 billion per year for imports of
merchandise, while its exports earned about $34. 4 billion annually. The
principal buyers of Brazilian products in the late 1980s were the United
States (about 28 percent by value of total exports), Germany, Japan,
Italy, Argentina, France, the Netherlands, and Great Britain. The
leading exports were soybeans, coffee, iron ore, steel, transportation
equipment, animal feed, machinery, footwear, and textiles.
The United States replaced Germany as the main source of Brazilian
imports at the start of World War II (1939-1945) and continued to
maintain that position after the war. Iraq, Germany, Japan, Argentina,
France, and Canada also were major suppliers in the late 1980s. The
chief imports included crude and refined petroleum, machinery, metal,
chemicals, and wheat.
Transportation
The railroad system of Brazil consists of about 29, 815 km (about 18, 525
mi) of lines, primarily south of Bahia. The chief railroad is the
government-dominated Federal Railway Corporation, which operates seven
regional rail networks. The country's railroads are used mainly to carry
freight. Roads and highways, concentrated in the southern and
northeastern sections of Brazil, were estimated at about 1, 500, 300 km
(about 932, 200 mi) in the mid-1980s; less than 10 percent of the roads
were paved. A national highway system of about 63, 000 km (about 39, 150
mi), connecting all parts of the country, is being developed, as is the
Trans-Amazon Highway, an eastern-western artery linking isolated regions
of Brazil and Peru. Inland waterways, totaling some 35, 400 km (some
22, 000 mi) and consisting primarily of the Amazon and its affluents,
connect Brazil with other South American countries and provide important
means of transportation within the country. Within many areas of the
Amazon Basin, waterways are the primary means of transportation. About
40 harbors along the Brazilian coast serve coastal and international
commerce. The principal ports are Santos, Rio de Janeiro, Paranagu?
Recife, and Vit?ia. Domestic airlines are extensive, and several
international air-transport systems, including Brazilian-owned Varig,
link the country with major world points.
Communications
The government plays a major role in providing telecommunications
services. More than 13 million telephones were in use in the late 1980s.
Brazil also has over 2500 radiobroadcasting stations and more than 200
television stations. In the late 1980s some 58. 9 million radios and 36
million television sets were in service. The country has more than 280
daily newspapers, but most have a relatively small circulation. Major
dailies include O Dia, in Rio de Janeiro; Folha de Sao Paulo and
Not?ias Populares, in Sao Paulo; Estado de Minas, in Belo Horizonte;
and O Fluminense, in Niter?.
Labor
The economically active Brazilian labor force is estimated to include
about 55. 4 million persons; women make up about one-third of the labor
force. About 26 percent of the workers are engaged in agriculture, about
51 percent are employed in services, and some 23 percent labor in
manufacturing and construction. Many of the workers are members of
unions belonging to one of several national confederations; the
groupings include the National Confederation of Industrial Workers, the
National Confederation of Agricultural Workers, and the National
Confederation of Communications and Advertising Workers, all located in
Brasilia.
Government
Brazil is a constitutional republic of federated states, the federal
district, and territories. The present constitution was promulgated in
October 1988, replacing a 1969 document. The states of the federation
have their own governments, with powers in all matters not specifically
reserved for the Union.
The 1988 constitution abolished the National Security Law, which had
been used to stifle political dissent; outlaws torture; provides for
various forms of popular plebiscites, initiatives, and referendums;
forbids virtually all forms of censorship; guarantees privacy rights;
and extends the right to strike to all workers. The military retains the
right to intervene in the political system to preserve law and order.
Executive
Under the 1969 constitution the president, indirectly chosen by an
electoral college of federal and state legislators, held broad powers to
rule by decree. The 1988 constitution provides for a directly elected
president with circumscribed authority, serving a nonrenewable five-year
term. In 1993, Brazilians voted to retain the presidential republic
system.
Legislature
The bicameral Brazilian national congress consists of a Senate of 81
members elected to eight-year terms, and a Chamber of Deputies with 503
members elected to four-year terms. The deputies are allocated among the
states according to population, and each territory elects one deputy.
Voting is by secret ballot and is compulsory for literate citizens over
the age of 16.
Judiciary
A Supreme Federal Tribunal, composed of 11 judges, meets in Brasilia.
Federal courts sit in each state and in the federal district. Other
courts are federal electoral tribunals, to protect elections, and labor
tribunals. Federal judges are appointed for life. Justice in the states
is administered in state courts.
Political Parties
In November 1979 Congress disbanded the two existing political parties,
both created in 1965. In the more liberal political climate of the 1980s
more than three dozen new political parties were formed, including the
progovernment Brazilian Democratic Movement and Liberal Front parties
and, among the opposition parties, the Social Democratic party and the
Brazilian Communist party (renamed the Popular Socialist party in 1992).
Health and Welfare
Health conditions in Brazil vary from region to region. Most large
cities have sufficient doctors, but interior regions suffer shortages of
physicians, nurses, hospitals, clinics, and pharmacists. Brazil has more
than 16, 000 hospitals, clinics, and local health centers and some
200, 000 physicians. The Organic Social Security Law of Brazil, enacted
in the 1930s and modified in the late 1970s, covers urban workers, rural
workers, and federal civil servants. The urban workers receive a wide
range of benefits, including health insurance and old-age pensions.
These benefits are funded by workers, employers, and the government.
Rural workers and federal civil servants receive lesser benefits, mainly
help with health care. The 1988 constitution provides for a 40-hour
workweek, maternity leave of 120 days, and paternity leave of 5 days.
Defense
A period of 12 to 18 months of military service is compulsory for all
men between the ages of 18 and 45. Active forces numbered 296, 700 people
in the early 1990s. Of these, about 196, 000 were in the army, 50, 000 in
the navy, and 50, 700 in the air force.
Local Government
The 26 states have their own popularly elected legislatures and
governors. The governor of the federal district is a federal appointee.
History
The Native American peoples who were the original inhabitants of what is
now Brazil included the Arawak and Carib groups in the north, the
Tupi-Guarani of the east coast and the Amazon River valley, the Ge of
eastern and southern Brazil, and the Pano in the west. For the most part
these groups were essentially seminomadic peoples, who subsisted by
hunting and gathering and simple agriculture. Those groups in the more
remote areas of the interior maintained their traditional way of life
until the late 20th century, when their existence was threatened by the
advancing frontier. See NATIVE AMERICANS.
European Exploration and Early Settlement
The Spanish navigator Vicente Y?ez Pinz? was the first known European
in the region now constituting Brazil. Landing near the site of
present-day Recife on January 26, 1500, he subsequently drifted
northward as far as the mouth of the Orinoco River. The newly found
territory fell within the region assigned to Portugal by the terms of
the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), a Spanish-Portuguese agreement that
modified the Line of Demarcation promulgated in 1493 by Pope Alexander
VI (see DEMARCATION, LINE OF). Probably for this reason, Spain made no
territorial claims on the basis of Pinz?'s discovery. In April 1500,
the Portuguese navigator Pedro Alvares Cabral also reached the coast of
present-day Brazil and formally claimed the surrounding region in the
name of Portugal. The territory was named Terra da Vera Cruz (Portuguese
for ?Land of the True CrosSão). An expedition under the command of the
Italian navigator Amerigo Vespucci was sent to Terra da Vera Cruz by the
Portuguese government in 1501. In the course of his explorations
Vespucci named many capes and bays, including a bay which he called Rio
de Janeiro. He returned to Portugal with a cargo of brazilwood, and from
that time forward Terra da Vera Cruz bore the name of the valuable wood
Brazil.
In 1530 the Portuguese king John III initiated a program of systematic
Brazilian colonization. As a first step the king divided Brazil into 15
districts, or captaincies, and granted each of the districts, in
perpetuity, to a person prominent at the Portuguese court. The grantees,
known as donatarios, were vested with extraordinary powers over their
domains.
Because of the dangers implicit in the French depredations along the
Brazilian coast, King John revoked most of the powers held by the
donatarios and placed Brazil under the rule of a governor-general. The
first governor-general, Thom?de Souza, arrived in Brazil in 1549,
organized a central government, with the newly founded city of Salvador,
or Bahia, as his capital, instituted comprehensive administrative and
judicial reforms, and established a coastal defense system. Large
numbers of slaves were brought into the region from Africa to overcome
the shortage of laborers. Sao Paulo, in the south, was founded in 1554.
In 1555 the French founded a colony on the shores of Rio de Janeiro Bay.
The Portuguese destroyed the French colony in 1560, and in 1567 they
established on its site the city of Rio de Janeiro.
Spanish Rule and Dutch Incursions
Philip II of Spain inherited the Portuguese crown in 1580. The period of
Spanish rule was marked by frequent aggressions against Brazil by the
English and Dutch, the traditional enemies of Spain. A Dutch fleet
seized Bahia in 1624, but the city was recaptured by a combined force of
Spaniards, Portuguese, and Native Americans the following year. The
Dutch attacked again in 1630, and an expedition sponsored by the Dutch
West India Company captured Pernambuco (now Recife) and Olinda. Most of
the territory between Maranh? Island and the lower course of the São
Francisco River fell to the Dutch in subsequent operations. Under the
able governorship of Count Joan Mauritz van Nassau-Siegen, the
Dutch-occupied part of Brazil prospered for several years. Nassau-Siegen
resigned in 1644, however, in protest against the exploitative policies
of the Dutch West India Company. Shortly after his departure the
Portuguese colonists, with support from their mother country, rose in
rebellion against Dutch rule. The Dutch capitulated in 1654, after
nearly a decade of struggle, and in 1661 renounced by treaty their
claims to Brazilian territory.
Portuguese Restoration
With the successful revolt in Portugal against Spanish overlordship in
1640, Brazil reverted to Portuguese sovereignty and was made a
viceroyalty. Generally peaceful conditions prevailed between the Spanish
and Portuguese in South America until 1680. In that year the Portuguese
dispatched an expedition southward to the east bank of the estuary of
the Ríode la Plata and founded a settlement called Colonia. This move
led to a protracted period of strife over ownership of the region, which
eventually emerged as the republic of Uruguay in 1828.
Brazilian expansion southward had been preceded by penetration of large
sections of the interior. Jesuit missionaries had begun to operate in
the Amazon Valley early in the 17th century. Before the middle of the
century, parties of Paulistas, the name by which residents of Sao Paulo
were known, had reached the upper course of the ParançoRiver. Because
these expeditions were undertaken principally for the purpose of
enslaving the Native Americans, the Paulistas encountered vigorous
opposition from the Jesuits. Supported by the Crown in their efforts to
protect the Native Americans, the Jesuits finally triumphed. Many
Paulistas thereupon became prospectors, and a feverish hunt for mineral
wealth ensued. In 1693 rich gold deposits were discovered in the region
of present-day Minas Gerais. The resultant gold rush brought tens of
thousands of Portuguese colonists to Brazil. The economic expansion of
the viceroyalty was further stimulated by the discovery of diamonds in
1721 and, later, by the development of the coffee- and sugar-growing
industries.
In 1750 the Treaty of Madrid between Spain and Portugal confirmed
Brazilian claims to a vast region west of the limits promulgated in the
Treaty of Tordesillas (see DEMARCATION, LINE OF). The Treaty of Madrid
was later annulled, but its principles were embodied in the 1777 Treaty
of Ildefonso.
The Portuguese foreign minister and premier Marqu? de Pombal instituted
many reforms in Brazil during the reign of Portugal's King Joseph
Emanuel. He freed the Native American slaves, encouraged immigration,
reduced taxes, eased the royal monopoly in Brazilian foreign commerce,
centralized the governmental apparatus, and transferred the seat of
government from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro in 1763. Pombal expelled the
Jesuits in 1760, because their influence among the Native Americans and
growing economic power were resented by many Brazilians.
The Sojourn of the Portuguese Court
The Napoleonic Wars profoundly altered the course of Brazilian history.
Early in November 1807, Napoleon dispatched an army across the Spanish
frontier into Portugal. The Portuguese regent, Prince John, and most of
his court embarked from Lisbon shortly before the arrival of the French
army and sailed for Brazil (see JOHN VI). Prince John made Rio de
Janeiro the seat of the royal government of Portugal and decreed a
series of reforms and improvements for Brazil, among them the removal of
restrictions on commerce, the institution of measures beneficial to
agriculture and industry, and the creation of schools of higher
learning.
Prince John inherited the Portuguese crown as John VI in March 1816. In
the five-year period before his recall to Portugal, his regime steadily
lost favor among the Brazilians. The royal government was corrupt and
inefficient, and republican sentiment, widespread in the country
following the French Revolution, had gained considerable momentum when
the neighboring Spanish colonies declared their independence. In 1816
King John intervened, occupying Banda Oriental (Uruguay), then under the
control of Spanish-American revolutionaries. He crushed a revolutionary
uprising in Pernambuco the next year. Banda Oriental was annexed to
Brazil in 1821 and renamed Cisplatine Province. Before departing for
Portugal in 1821, John VI made his second son, Dom Pedro, regent of
Brazil. Sharp antagonism to the king's Brazilian reforms had developed
meanwhile in Portugal; the Cortes, the Portuguese legislature, enacted
legislation designed to return Brazil to its former status as a colony.
Dom Pedro was ordered to return to Europe. In 1822, responding to the
pleas of the indignant Brazilians, Dom Pedro announced his refusal to
leave Brazil. He convoked a Constituent Assembly in June, and in
September, when dispatches from Portugal disclosed that the Cortes would
make no major concessions to Brazilian nationalism, he proclaimed the
country's independence. By vote of the upper house of the Constituent
Assembly, he became emperor of Brazil in the same year. All Portuguese
troops in Brazil had been forced to surrender by the end of 1823.
The Empire of Brazil
An autocratic ruler, Pedro I lost much of his popular support during the
first year of his reign. Because of dissension within the Constituent
Assembly, he dissolved it in 1823 and promulgated a constitution in
March 1824. In 1825 Brazil, provoked by Argentina's support of a
rebellion in Cisplatine Province, became embroiled in war with that
country. In 1827 the Brazilians were decisively defeated, and through
British mediation Cisplatine Province won independence as Uruguay.
Popular opposition to Pedro I mounted during the next few years. In
April 1831 he abdicated in favor of Pedro II, the five-year-old heir
apparent.
Regencies ruled Brazil for the following decade, a period of political
turbulence marked by frequent provincial revolts and uprisings. Toward
the end of the decade a movement to place the young emperor at the head
of the government gained popular support, and in July 1840 the Brazilian
Parliament proclaimed that Pedro II had attained his majority.
Pedro II proved to be one of the most able monarchs of his time. During
his reign, which lasted nearly half a century, the population and
economy expanded at unprecedented rates. National production increased
by more than 900 percent. A network of railroads was constructed. In the
realm of foreign affairs the imperial government was actively hostile to
neighboring dictatorial regimes. It supported the successful
revolutionary war against the Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas
from 1851 to 1852 and, allied with Argentina and Uruguay, fought a
victorious war against Paraguay from 1865 to 1870.
The chief domestic political issue of the emperor's reign grew out of a
broad movement for the abolition of slavery in Brazil. Importation of
African slaves was outlawed in 1853. An organized campaign for
emancipation of the 2. 5 million slaves already in Brazil was launched a
few years later. The abolitionists won their first victory in 1871, when
the national Parliament approved legislation freeing children born of
slave mothers. For various reasons, including the sacrifices entailed by
the Paraguayan war, a parallel movement for a republic developed at
about this time. Liberalism became widespread during the next 15 years.
Slaves more than 60 years of age were liberated in 1885. In May 1888 all
remaining slaves were emancipated.
The Early Republic
Instituted without compensation for the slave owners, emancipation
alienated the powerful landed interests from the government. Moreover,
sections of the Roman Catholic clergy were hostile to certain of Pedro's
policies, many leading army officers were secretly disloyal, and large
sections of the populace favored a republic.
Fonseca and Peixoto
In November 1889 a military revolt under the leadership of General
Manuel Deodoro da Fonseca forced the abdication of Pedro II. A republic
was proclaimed, with Fonseca as head of the provisional government.
Separation of church and state and other republican reforms were swiftly
decreed. The drafting of a constitution was completed in June 1890.
Similar to the U. S. Constitution, it was adopted in February 1891, and
Brazil became a federal republic, officially styled the United States of
Brazil. Fonseca was elected its first president.
Political turbulence, due essentially to the lack of national democratic
traditions and experience, marked the early years of the new republic.
During 1891 the arbitrary policies and methods of President Fonseca
aroused strong congressional opposition. Early in November he dissolved
the congress and assumed dictatorial power. A naval revolt later that
month forced him to resign in favor of Vice President Floriano Peixoto.
The Peixoto government, another dictatorial regime, survived a military
and naval rebellion (1893-1894) and a series of uprisings in southern
Brazil.
Civilian Rule
Order was gradually restored in the country during the administration of
President Prudente Josede Moraes Barros, the nation's first civilian
chief executive. Beginning in 1898, when Manuel Ferraz de Campos Salles,
a former governor of Sao Paulo, became president, energetic measures to
rehabilitate the dislocated national economy were adopted. By securing a
large foreign loan, Campos Salles strengthened Brazilian finances and
expanded trade and industry.
Coffee and rubber production had meanwhile increased steadily in Brazil.
Between 1906 and 1910 falling coffee prices on the world market severely
disrupted the national economy. The price of Brazilian rubber began to
drop toward the close of this period. As a result, social and political
unrest was widespread during the administration of President Hermes da
Fonseca, a conservative and militarist. Wenceslau Braz Pereira Gomes, an
industrialist, was elected to the presidency without opposition in 1914
and held office until 1918.
After the outbreak of World War I in 1914, rising demand in foreign
markets for Brazilian coffee, rubber, and sugar considerably relieved
the economic difficulties of the country. Brazil adopted a policy of
neutrality in the early stages of the war, but as a consequence of
German attacks on its shipping, the country severed diplomatic relations
with Germany in August 1917. In October, Brazil entered the war on the
side of the Allies. Naval units were sent to the fighting zones, and the
nation's contributions of food and raw materials to the war effort were
substantial.
Industrial retrenchment and sharp curtailment of governmental
expenditures were necessitated by the onset of an economic crisis in
1922. In July 1924 a period of unrest culminated in large-scale revolt,
especially serious in Sao Paulo. Most of the army remained loyal to
President Artur da Silva Bernardes, who had taken office in 1922, and,
after more than six months of fighting, the rebels were defeated.
Bernardes ruled by martial law for the remainder of his term. During the
administration of his successor, President Washington Luiz Pereira de
Souza, the economic crisis deepened, causing numerous strikes and an
upsurge of radicalism. Strikes were outlawed by the government in August
1927, and stringent measures against communism were adopted.
The Vargas Period
In the presidential contest of March 1930, the administration-sponsored
candidate Julio Prestes was declared the victor over Getulio Dornelles
Vargas, a prominent politician and nationalist of the state of Rio
Grande do Sul. Vargas, however, gained the support of many military and
political leaders and led a revolt against the government in October.
After about three weeks of bitter fighting, President Luiz Pereira de
Souza resigned, and Vargas assumed absolute power as provisional
president.
In an attempt to ease the economic distress of the country, Vargas
reduced coffee production and purchased and destroyed surplus stocks of
the commodity. Expenditures entailed by this program intensified the
financial problems of the government, however, and Brazil defaulted on
its foreign debt. In 1932 the Vargas regime quelled a formidable
rebellion in Sao Paulo after nearly three months of large-scale warfare.
Vargas allayed much of the political unrest in Brazil by convening a
Constituent Assembly in 1933. Among the features of the new constitution
adopted by this body in 1934 were sections curtailing states' rights and
providing for woman suffrage, social security for workers, and the
election of future presidents by the congress. On July 17, Vargas was
elected president.
In the first year of his constitutional administration Vargas
encountered considerable opposition from the radical wing of the
Brazilian labor movement. Abortive Communist-led revolts occurred in
Pernambuco and Rio de Janeiro in November 1935. Martial law was
declared, and Vargas was authorized by the congress to rule by decree.
Mass arrests of radicals and other opponents of the government followed.
Popular discontent soon attained grave proportions, with a newly formed
pro-Nazi party organization (Integralista) winning broad support among
the Brazilian middle class. This group soon became a center of
antigovernment activity. In November 1937, almost on the eve of the
presidential election, Vargas dissolved the congress and proclaimed a
new constitution vesting his office with absolute, dictatorial powers.
He reorganized the government in imitation of totalitarian Italy and
Germany, abolished all political parties, and imposed censorship of the
press and mails.
The Estado Novo
The Vargas government, officially styled Estado Novo (New State), was to
continue in office pending a national plebiscite on the new organic law.
No date was set for the plebiscite. Through a series of decrees
extending greater social security to the plantation workers, Vargas
mobilized the support of a large section of the population. The only
serious challenge to his regime came from the Integralistas, who staged
a revolt in 1938. The uprising was crushed within a few hours.
Despite the totalitarian character of his regime, Vargas maintained
friendly relations with the United States and other democracies. His
administration was openly hostile to the Third Reich, largely because
German agents were so active in Brazil. After evidence of Nazi
complicity in the Integralista revolt had been uncovered, Vargas imposed
severe restrictions on German nationals. The consequent friction between
Brazil and Nazi Germany led to a temporary break in their diplomatic
relations in October 1938.
Siding with the Allies in World War II, the Vargas regime, aided by the
United States, embarked on a vast program of industrial expansion,
giving special emphasis to increased production of rubber and other
vital war materials. Naval bases and airfields, constructed at strategic
coastal points, became important centers of Allied antisubmarine
warfare. The Brazilian navy eventually assumed all patrol activities in
the South Atlantic Ocean. In 1944 and 1945 a Brazilian expeditionary
force participated in the Allied campaign in Italy.
Meanwhile, manifestations of dissatisfaction with the Vargas
dictatorship were increasing. Defiant action in February 1945 by a group
of influential publishers forced the government to relax censorship of
the press. On February 28 it was announced that congressional and
presidential elections would be held later in the year. Gradually, all
major restrictions against political activity were removed. Amnesty for
all political prisoners, including Communists, was decreed in April.
The Dutra Government
During the election campaign a series of unpopular executive orders
created fears that Vargas intended to resume the dictatorship. A
military coup d'?at in October 1945 forced Vargas to resign. Jose
Linhares, chief justice of the supreme court, was appointed head of the
provisional government. In the national elections held in December, the
former minister of war Eurico Gaspar Dutra won the presidency by a large
plurality; he was inaugurated in January 1946. The newly elected
congress drafted a new constitution, adopted the following September.
During the summer of 1947, Petr?olis, Brazil, was the site of the
International (Pan-American) Conference for the Maintenance of Peace and
Security. The Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance, drafted by
the conference, was signed by Brazil in September. A provision of the
treaty stipulates united defense by the signatories against armed
aggression directed at any nation of the western hemisphere. See RIO
TREATY.
In October 1947 the Brazilian government, provoked by a Soviet magazine
article that referred to President Dutra as a puppet of the United
States, severed diplomatic relations with the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR). A few months later the legislature voted to expel from
office all Communists in elective positions. One senator and 14 deputies
were affected.
Vargas's Second Presidency
Getório Vargas returned to power as president in January 1951, after
defeating two rival candidates by a large plurality in elections held
the previous October. Vargas formed a coalition cabinet representative
of all major parties. The government took immediate steps to balance the
national budget and develop a program to reduce living costs, increase
wages, and extend social reforms. Inflation and high living costs,
however, persisted throughout the postwar period, which was marked by an
upsurge of Communist underground activities and a revival of nationalism
that led to the nationalization of petroleum resources in September
1952. In addition, the so-called austerity program of the government
caused anti-Vargas conservatives to become increasingly critical.
In August 1954, during a congressional election campaign, an air force
officer was killed in the attempted assassination of an anti-Vargas
newspaper editor. The killing brought the governmental crisis to a head:
military officers demanded that Vargas resign. Early on August 24,
Vargas agreed to relinquish power temporarily in favor of Vice President
João Caf?Filho. Vargas committed suicide a few hours later.
The Kubitschek, Quadros, and Goulart Administrations
The former governor of Minas Gerais, Juscelino Kubitschek, had the
support of Vargas's followers and the Communists. Kubitschek won
election to the presidency in October 1955 and was inaugurated in
January 1956. Kubitschek announced an ambitious five-year economic
development plan. The announcement was followed by the acquisition of
U. S. Export-Import Bank loans totaling more than $150 million, and by
the approval of plans, in September, for a new federal capital,
Brasilia. The fast pace of industrial development was tempered, however,
by a drop in world coffee prices in the mid- and late 1950s. Inflation
continued, prodding social unrest that resulted in frequent strikes and
riots by workers and students.
jioio da Silva Quadros, former governor of Sao Paulo, became president
of Brazil in January 1961 and immediately initiated a program of
rigorous economies. All governmental ministries were ordered to reduce
expenditures by 30 percent, and some civil-service employees were
dismissed. Quadros also proposed to eliminate the corruption alleged to
have flourished during the Kubitschek administration. President Quadros
suddenly resigned his office in August, giving no explanation, and
referring only to the ?forces of reactionço that had blocked his efforts.
Military leaders expressed opposition to the assumption of office by
Vice President João Belchoir Marques Goulart, maintaining that he was
sympathetic to the Castro regime in Cuba. A compromise was reached,
however, when the Brazilian legislature amended the constitution in
order to strip the presidency of most powers; executive authority was
vested in a prime minister and cabinet who were responsible to the
legislature. Goulart was installed in office in September 1961.
A year later, Goulart precipitated a cabinet crisis with a request for a
national plebiscite to measure support for a return to a presidential
form of government. The plebiscite was held and the proposal approved;
in January 1963, the legislature enacted the change into law. Later that
year Goulart pressed strongly for legislative approval of a program of
basic reforms, and early in 1964 he signed decrees setting low-rent
controls, nationalizing petroleum refineries, expropriating unused
lands, and limiting export of profits. The measures seemed only to
aggravate the nation's chronic inflation. On March 13 Goulart appeared
at a worker's rally; on March 31 he was overthrown by an army revolt and
fled to Uruguay. General Humberto Castelo Branco, army chief of staff,
was elected president.
Military Government
The new regime, with extraordinary powers under the Institutional Act
signed in April, suppressed opposition, particularly from the Left, and
deprived some 300 persons of political rights. It also adopted moderate
versions of many reforms demanded by Goulart and fought inflation with
wage controls, tightened tax collections, and other measures. A law
passed in 1965 curbed civil liberties, increased the power of the
national government, and provided for congressional election of the
president and vice president.
The former minister of war Marshal Artur da Costa e Silva, candidate of
the government's ARENA party, was elected president in 1966. The
Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB), the only legal opposition party,
had refused to enter a candidate in protest against the government's
disfranchisement of its most challenging opponents. Also in 1966 ARENA
won the national and state legislative elections. President Costa headed
a militarily oriented government that was concerned primarily with
economic development. Although 1968 was marked by antigovernment
activities, including student riots, the economy gained momentum. In
December Costa assumed unlimited powers, which resulted in political
purges, economic curbs, and censorship. In August 1969 he was
incapacitated by a stroke, and in October the military chose as his
successor General Em?io Garrastaz?M?ici; Congress elected him
president. The M?ici regime intensified repression, and revolutionary
groups became more active. As the government encouraged economic growth
and development of the vast interior regions, the economy was plagued by
high energy costs, runaway inflation, and a large balance-of-payments
deficit. The Roman Catholic clergy became increasingly critical of the
government's failure to improve the condition of the poor.
In 1974 General Ernest Geisel, the president of Petrobras, the national
oil monopoly, became president. At first he followed relatively liberal
policies, relaxing press censorship and allowing opposition parties
considerable freedom, but in 1976 and 1977 controls were tightened again
just before the election of João Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo, who
succeeded Geisel in 1979.
Restoration of Civil Rule
In 1985 Tancredo Neves was selected as Brazil's first civilian president
in 21 years; he died before taking office, and Jos'sarney became
president. Faced with resurgent inflation and a huge foreign debt,
Sarney imposed an austerity program that included a new unit of
currency, the cruzado. A new constitution providing for direct
presidential elections was enacted in October 1988, and Fernando Collor
de Mello, of the conservative National Reconstruction party, was elected
president in December 1989. His drastic anti-inflation program
contributed to Brazil's worst recession in ten years, and allegations of
financial corruption further eroded his popularity. In June 1992 Brazil
was host to more than 100 world leaders for the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development, also known as the Earth
Summit. In September Collor was impeached by the Chamber of Deputies,
and Vice President Itamar Franco became acting president. Collor
resigned on December 29, just as his Senate trial was beginning, and
Franco was then sworn in as his successor. A plan to restructure and
reduce Brazil's foreign debt was implemented in April 1994.
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