Russian EconomyEconomy  As in other former Soviet republics, Russia's economy was affected
severely by the dissolution of the USSR. Economic decline, which began
in the last years of the Soviet period, reached 20 percent per year in
1992. Some analysts estimate that the total decline in gross domestic
product (GDP) will be 40 to 50 percent for the period 1990-1994, a much
greater drop than occurred in the United States in the 1930s during the
Great Depression. Investment in Russia has declined by about one-third
since the late 1980s, and inflation has reached 1000 percent per year.
The value of Russia's currency, the ruble, has dropped rapidly, from the
official rate of 0. 6 ruble per U. S. $1 in 1988 to more than 1000 rubles
per U. S. $1 in 1993. The large government deficit, inherited from the
Soviet period, equals about one-fifth of total GDP.  The causes of the Russian economic crisis are the disruption of
traditional trade patterns and a delay in enacting economic reforms.
Trade between Russia, other former Soviet republics, and Eastern
European countries has declined markedly since the late 1980s, when
Eastern European countries achieved independence from Moscow and the
Soviet-controlled system of trade and production began to disintegrate.
Trade between Russia and other republics suffers from disputes over
terms of trade, especially over the price of Russian oil exports.
Overlapping property claims by different levels of government
administration within Russia have added to the confusion in conducting
business with Russia. Market reforms, vigorously pursued by President Yeltsin and his supporters beginning in early 1992, were met with widespread resistance by industrial managers and other conservatives. (See the Government section of this article. ) Despite protests by government officials, the Central Bank of Russia extended large subsidies to inefficient enterprises in 1992, which contributed to inflationary pressures and increased the government deficit. Beginning in mid-1993, however, the bank began to adhere to governmental directives on subsidies. Privatization continued—about one third of all state and municipal enterprises had been privatized by the end of 1993—but the process depended to a large degree on the support of local officials. Privatization proceeded much faster in certain cities, such as Nizhny Novgorod, St. Petersburg, and Yaroslavl, than in the country as a whole. In addition, the legal framework for privatization was incomplete. Privately owning, selling, and renting land was not legally permitted, until October 1993, when President Yeltsin issued a decree that repealed a ten-year moratorium on reselling land that had been imposed by the legislature. This legal action promised to accelerate economic liberation in Russia, although the forecast for the immediate economic future remained dark. Labor The total work force in Russia numbered 72. 5 million in 1992, four-fifths of whom continued to work in state-owned enterprises. Industry is the country's leading sector of employment, with about 30 percent of the total work force. Agriculture accounts for about 13 percent of all employment, and construction accounts for 12 percent. Trade and transport each employ about 8 percent of the total work force, while other services employ about one-fourth of all workers. Only about 1 million people (about 1. 5 percent) of the work force are officially unemployed, but the true unemployment rate is much higher; thousands work with no pay or with extremely limited hours. The unemployed include a high percentage of women and a rising number of young people. The Russian government projected that unemployment could reach 10 million people (about 12 percent of the work force) by the mid-1990s. The organization of labor has changed little since the Soviet period. Labor unions are dominated by organizations that succeeded the official communist labor unions of the USSR; these organizations survived the collapse of communism with their leadership, property, and apparatus intact. Their parent organization, the Federation of Independent Trade Unions (the Russian acronym is FNPR), claims 50 million members, or nearly 70 percent of the total work force. By contrast, the membership of unions not affiliated with the FNPR is less than half a million. The FNPR unions retained several powers from the Soviet period, including control over social security funds, the ability to automatically deduct union fees from workers' paychecks, and the right to veto proposals by management to fire workers. The government attempted to reduce these powers, prompting most of the FNPR unions to express political support for the conservative opposition. In addition, the FNPR established a close relationship with industrial management that resembles the Soviet-era relationship between labor and management. Agriculture Agriculture, which accounted for 19. 9 percent of total net material product in 1991, experienced a sharp decline in output in the early 1990s. Between 1990 and 1992, total agricultural output declined by more than 4 percent per year, and between 1990 and 1991 grain production dropped by 24 percent. Although meat production remained fairly stable, livestock herds diminished considerably. Between 1986 and 1993, the total number of poultry fell by 10 percent, cattle by 12 percent, and hogs, sheep, and goats by 19 percent. The decline in livestock herds can be attributed in part to a lack of animal feed, while the decline in agriculture resulted chiefly from a lack of reliable credit and a sharp rise in the price of mechanical, chemical, and fuel inputs. Privatization has occurred slowly in agriculture. Nearly all agricultural land (96 percent in 1993) remains under the control of former collective and state farms, most of which have been reorganized as producer cooperatives or joint-stock companies; only about 4 percent are controlled by private farmers. Much of the agricultural output of the country is bought by the state, but this proportion declined steadily in the early 1990s. The drop in state procurements was most notable in sugar beets, vegetables, sunflower seeds, and potatoes. However, as of 1992 the state still purchased more than half of all meat, milk, and eggs produced. Russia is a major producer of wheat, barley, oats, and rye. In 1991 alone Russia produced 39 million metric tons of wheat, 11 million metric tons of rye, 22 million metric tons of barley, and 10 million metric tons of oats. In 1991 Russia also produced the following (in metric tons): sunflower seeds, 2. 9 million; sugar beets, 24 million; soybeans, 624 thousand; potatoes, 34 million; and vegetables, 11 million. Other important grains in Russia include corn, millet, buckwheat, rice, and pulse. Various types of temperate-climate fruits, such as apples, pears, and cherries, are also grown extensively in Russia. In the far north, reindeer herding is a major occupation among the native peoples. Most of the country's farmland lies in the so-called fertile triangle that has its base along the western border stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea and which tapers eastward to the southern Urals, where it narrows to a strip about 400 km (about 250 mi) wide, extending across the southwestern fringes of Siberia. East of the Altai Mountains, agriculture is found only in isolated mountain basins along the southern fringes of Siberia and the far eastern region. Areas outside this fertile wedge are unsuitable for crops without human modification. To the north, the growing season is too short without the aid of hothouses. To the south, the climate is too dry without irrigation. During the Soviet period, extensive irrigation works were constructed along the Kuban and other rivers in southern European Russia to support agriculture there; the main irrigation projects of the former USSR, however, are located in the Central Asian republics. Forestry Russia, which contains about one-fifth of the world's forests and about one-third of the world's coniferous forests, is one of the leading producers of lumber and wood products. It accounts for more than 96 percent of the total forest reserves in the former USSR. Most of Russia's timber production consists of softwood, mainly varieties of pine, fir, and larch. The principal commercial hardwood tree is birch. About one-fifth of all timber felled is used as firewood, and another fifth is used in raw form, for telephone poles, log cabins, and other uses. Primary areas of timber production are northwestern European Russia, the central Ural Mountains, southern Siberia in the vicinity of the Trans-Siberian Railroad, and southern Far Eastern Russia. The most accessible and valuable stands of timber were heavily harvested during the Soviet period, and less valuable tree species have become dominant in many areas that were once prime forest land. Remaining forests are located in less accessible areas of Siberia and northern European Russia. These forests, especially in Siberia, contain a high proportion of larch, a difficult and expensive species to exploit because of its high density and resin content. Large-scale exploitation of these less-accessible larch forests has not proven to be cost-effective, due to difficulties in extracting, transporting, and processing larch logs. Technological improvements and changes in the world timber market, however, could make the logging of larch forests more economically attractive. Timber production was particularly affected by the disruption of economic ties in the post-Soviet period. Timber output in the first quarter of 1993 was 27 percent lower than production levels at the same time in 1992, a higher percentage of decline than that of the industrial sector. Fishing Russia's fishing industry is one of the largest in the world, exceeded in production only by Japan, China, and the United States. Fish has long been an important source of protein in the Russian diet. During the Soviet period, the per capita consumption of fish rose to about 23 kg (about 50 lb) a year. Historically, fishing was concentrated on bordering seas and inland lakes and rivers. In recent decades, however, a great effort was made to expand fishing activities; Soviet fleets began to operate in most areas of the world's oceans, and fish farming was developed in erosion-control ponds and rural irrigation reservoirs and ditches. As a result, by the 1980s the USSR ranked second only to Japan in the quantity of fish caught annually. In the late 1980s the annual catch was about 10. 9 million metric tons. Marine fisheries accounted for about 92 percent of the catch and inland fisheries about 8 percent. Of the inland fisheries, the saltwater Azov, Black, and Caspian seas accounted for about 60 percent of the total; freshwater lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and ponds accounted for the remaining 40 percent. Outstanding among commercial species in inland waters is the sturgeon of the northern Caspian Sea. The main source of the world's caviar, these fish may live as long as 100 years and attain weights of up to 1. 5 metric tons. A single female commonly produces about 25 kg (about 55 lb) of valuable roe. Another huge fish is the Kaluga sturgeon or Amur queen found in the Amur River; the world's largest freshwater fish, it may reach 6 m (20 ft) in length and 1 metric ton in weight. About 25 percent of the Russian fish catch comes from the North Atlantic and Arctic oceans. Much of the Atlantic fishing fleet is based at ports on the Baltic Sea. Kaliningrad is the largest Russian fishing port on the Baltic; another important Baltic port is St. Petersburg on the Gulf of Finland. The principal commercial species taken in the Baltic Sea are herring and sprat. Murmansk and Arkhangelsk are the outstanding fishing ports on the western Arctic coast. Many fishing ports are located on the coasts of the Black, Azov, and Caspian seas in the south; Astrakhan is a notable fishing port near the Caspian Sea. About 60 percent of the Russian fish catch is taken in the Pacific Ocean and its marginal seas. Vladivostok is by far the largest fishing port and fish-processing center of the Pacific region; many other fishing ports are scattered along the mainland coast as well as on Sakhalin Island. Because of its cold waters, the Sea of Okhotsk is one of the richest of Russian fishing grounds. It is especially known for salmon, but the Kamchatka crab is also world renowned. Other common species taken in the Pacific include herring, flounder, smelt, mackerel, and cod, as well as the marine mammals—walrus and seal. During the mid-1980s the former USSR led the world's whaling. Although Soviet commercial whaling in the North Pacific ceased in 1979, whaling continued in the seas surrounding Antarctica. In Russia, whaling flotillas were based primarily in Vladivostok on the Pacific coast. The USSR formally ended all commercial whaling activities in 1988. Mining Mining is a major sector of the Russian economy and provides major items for national export. Mineral resources are diverse, abundant, and generally well developed. Russia is a major exporter of iron ore (12 million metric tons in 1990), with most production occurring in the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly of south-central Russia. Iron ore deposits near Magnitogorsk in the Ural Mountains have been largely depleted. Russia is also a notable exporter of copper (168, 000 metric tons in 1990) and nickel (127, 000 metric tons in 1990). Copper and nickel ores are mined primarily in the Urals, although sizable deposits of nickel are also located in the Kola Peninsula near Murmansk. The country is one of the world's leading producers of gold, which is mined in the Urals, western Siberia, and eastern Siberia in the valley of the Lena River. Bauxite deposits are located primarily in the Urals and northwest European Russia near St. Petersburg. Lesser deposits are found in western Siberia near Kemerovo and in the far eastern region near the mouth of the Amur River. Tin is mined in northeastern Siberia, and lead and zinc are mined in Siberia and the far eastern region. Manganese deposits are located in the Urals, western Siberia, and the far eastern region. Manufacturing The structure of Russian industry was greatly affected by theoretical assumptions of Soviet planners on the role of industry in economic growth. In accordance with Soviet theory, heavy industry was promoted above all other sectors, with the greatest emphasis on the machine-building and metalworking industries because they provide the means for more production. The products of these industries are diversified, ranging from fine tools, instruments, and computers to industrial machines of all sorts, transportation and communication equipment, agricultural machinery, mining equipment, and space vehicles. Industrial output for national defense also received high priority in Soviet plans. Russian industries are very technologically advanced in the production of certain items, such as aerospace technology, but the overall level of technology is far below the levels of other highly industrialized countries. The machine-building industries are usually located in the largest cities because they are labor intensive. In planning the industrialization of the former USSR, the Soviet government devoted particular attention to the geographical location of the vast industrial complexes. Initially, Soviet manufacturing enterprises in Russia were concentrated in the Moscow and St. Petersburg areas. Simultaneously, work was begun on the electrification of areas in the Urals known to have large coal and mineral reserves, and planning began for the electrification of various Siberian regions. As the so-called Five-Year Plans progressed, and as the electric-power areas increased, huge new manufacturing complexes were installed to take maximum advantage of these natural resources. As a result, production increased in the eastern regions. This significant expansion was accomplished by developing the new eastern industrial regions, rather than by reducing the production of the older centers; indeed, the older industrial regions continued to increase their output. Today the manufacture of transportation equipment is concentrated in central European Russia. Railroad locomotives are produced at Kolomna, Murom, and Lyudinovo, all of which are located near Moscow. Railroad rolling stock is built in plants at Tver, northwest of Moscow, and at Bryansk, southwest of Moscow. Subway cars are manufactured in Mytishchi, a northern suburb of Moscow; Engels, in the Volga Valley, is the main center for manufacturing trolley buses. A large railroad-car plant in the Minusinsk Basin in eastern Siberia services the Trans-Siberian and Baykal-Amur railroads. The largest shipbuilding center is in St. Petersburg on the Baltic Sea. Lesser shipyards are located in Kaliningrad on the Baltic Sea, in Arkhangelsk on the White Sea, and at certain ports on the Pacific coast. Most of the country's river craft are built in the Volga-Kama River Basin. The oldest, and still the largest, river craft shipyard is located in the city of Nizhny Novgorod; other riverboat manufacturing plants are in Moscow, Rybinsk, and Kostroma on the upper Volga River. The motor-vehicle manufacturing industry is limited in Russia because the Soviet government gave low priority to vehicular traffic as compared with railroads and other forms of transport; several large-scale automobile and truck factories, however, are located in Russia. These factories produced about 87 percent of all trucks and cars manufactured in the former USSR in 1990. The largest construction project in the former USSR during the eighth Soviet Five-Year Plan (1966-1970) was the establishment of the Volga Motor Vehicle Plant at Tolyatti, in eastern European Russia. This plant's capacity is about 660, 000 automobiles a year, or about half the passenger-car production of the former USSR; the plant, however, has been running well below capacity in recent years. Other important automobile assembly plants are in Moscow, Izhevsk, and Nizhny Novgorod. The largest construction project during the ninth Five-Year Plan (1971-1975) was the Kama River Truck Plant in Naberezhnye Chelny. Trucks are also produced in Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Ulyanovsk on the Volga, and Miass in the Urals. The manufacture of agricultural machinery is also a large industry in Russia. In 1990 Russia accounted for 60 percent of the total production of agricultural machinery in the former USSR, once the largest producer of tractors in the world and a sizable exporter. Most of the principal producing plants are in European Russia, in Volgograd, Vladimir, Bryansk, and Lipetsk. Chelyabinsk in the Urals and Rubtsovsk in the Altay region of Siberia are also major production centers. Self-propelled combines and other farm machinery are produced in Rostov-na-Donu. Russia is also a major producer of textiles. The former USSR led the world in the production of virtually all kinds of textiles, with the majority of its productive capacity located in the Russian cities of Moscow, Ivanovo, Kostroma, Tver, and Vladimir, where textile production has been based for more than a century. In the late 1980s the annual production of cotton yarn in the former USSR stood at 1. 7 million metric tons, well ahead of that of its second-place competitor, the United States. The country was by far the world's largest producer of linen fabrics (1. 2 billion sq m/about 1. 4 billion sq yd) and woolen yarn (465, 000 metric tons). It was second only to Japan in the production of natural silk woven fabric. The USSR also led in the production of rayon and acetate fibers but lagged in synthetic fibers derived from noncellulosic materials. In general, the country was somewhat behind the rest of the developed world in the technology of synthetic fibers and plastics. Textile production in Russia has suffered greatly from the disruption of ties with other former Soviet republics, as other republics were a major source of textile raw materials. Nearly all of the country's raw cotton came from the Soviet republics in Central Asia and the republic of Azerbaijan, but with a shortage of supplies from these countries, many Russian textile mills were forced to close. Total textile production in Russia fell by more than 50 percent in 1992. Russia has traditionally been a major producer of leather goods, and the former Soviet government greatly expanded and dispersed the industry. The former USSR ranked as world leader in the production of leather footwear, manufacturing approximately 820 million pairs of shoes and boots each year, compared with 217. 6 million in the United States. The food industries form another major manufacturing sector in Russia. Initially, flour mills were built in the major grain-producing areas, but newer flour mills are generally located in consuming areas. A considerable portion of the country's fresh fruits and vegetables are canned or preserved in the growing areas, because transportation and refrigeration facilities are not adequate to market fresh produce at great distances. In general, industrial output in Russia has declined substantially in recent years, which continues a general slowdown in industrial growth that took place during the last years of the USSR. Overall industrial production declined by about 20 percent in 1992, although the drop in production of specific items was much greater. In comparison to first-quarter output in 1992, the 1993 first-quarter output of paints and lacquers was 50 percent lower, synthetic dyes 48 percent lower, cement 38 percent lower, and synthetic rubber 32 percent lower. Production of consumer durables declined overall in 1992, although the output of some products, such as television sets, actually increased. The production of food items also declined in general, with the exception of sugar production, which recently increased. Energy Russia is the only large developed country in the world with adequate energy supplies. It is not only self-sufficient in the production of mineral fuels, but also able to export considerable quantities of them. Coal accounted for most of Russia's energy production until 1955, after which a gradual shift to oil and natural gas took place. By the 1970s oil and natural gas had become the country's primary energy sources, and the former USSR became the world's largest producer of fossil fuels. In 1990 Russia, which contains 7 to 10 percent of the world's proven reserves of oil, produced most of the USSR's energy output—90 percent of all oil, 79 percent of all natural gas, and 56 percent of all coal. Energy output declined overall following the dissolution of the USSR, although natural-gas production increased slightly between 1990 and 1992. Oil production fell by 11 percent in 1991 and by about 15 percent in 1992. Coal output declined by 10 percent in 1992. As with other extractive industries in Russia—namely logging and mining—fossil-fuel production shifted eastward during the Soviet period. The primary oil fields lie in western Siberia, which accounted for about half of total Soviet production, and the Urals-Volga region, which accounted for one-third of total Soviet production. Other important oil fields are located in the North Caucasus and the northern part of Sakhalin Island. The main sources of natural gas are found in close proximity to the main sources of oil—in western Siberia, the Urals-Volga region, and the North Caucasus. The leading areas of hard-coal production are the Kuznetsk Coal Basin in western Siberia and the Pechora Basin in northeastern European Russia. The Kansk-Achinsk Basin in Siberia and the Moscow Basin are the leading areas of soft (brown) coal extraction. Lesser coal mines are scattered throughout Siberia, where huge reserves of coal remain largely untapped, such as the Tungusk Basin, which covers much of central Siberia. Other important sources of energy in Russia are hydroelectric and nuclear power. Russia has vast waterpower resources, and waterpower accounted for about 13 percent of the total yearly electrical production in the former USSR. Important hydroelectric stations are located on the major rivers of European Russia, notably on the Volga and Don rivers. The largest hydroelectric installations, however, are on the great rivers of Siberia, particularly on the Yenisey and Angara. Nuclear power accounts for about 11 percent of total energy production in Russia, with most of the country's nuclear energy capacity located in European Russia. The country's two largest cities, Moscow and St. Petersburg, depend on nuclear energy for about one-fifth to one-third of their electrical needs. The Chernobyl' accident of 1986 prompted Soviet officials to abandon plans to greatly expand nuclear capacity, but in 1992 the Russian government announced plans to expand nuclear energy production in the country. Transportation The Russian transportation network is state-owned and nationally integrated. The overall transport network is much less dense, however, than those of most other developed nations. The Soviet government considered transport expenditures an unproductive but necessary part of the economy. Emphasis was therefore placed on the types of facilities that move the greatest amount of goods and people at the least cost, often sacrificing convenience to the consumer in order to maximize efficiency. The transport network is dominated by railroads; motor traffic plays a minor role. A great network of oil and gas pipelines facilitated the rapid expansion of the petroleum and natural-gas industries, and maritime shipping has facilitated the growth of foreign trade. Passenger transport is also dominated by railroads, although in recent years buses have taken over much commuter traffic, and airlines account for a great deal of long-distance travel. The density of the railroad network generally corresponds to the regional population density. The network is relatively dense in most of European Russia south of St. Petersburg, but is sparse in Siberia and the far eastern region. Russian railroad lines carry the heaviest freight traffic in the world. The densest traffic on a single line occurs on the western Siberian section of the Trans-Siberian Railroad, where trains occasionally run as frequently as once every three minutes. To relieve some of the traffic, parallel lines were built in western Siberia and northern Kazakhstan. A new line, the Baykal-Amur Mainline (BAM), was built through Siberia and the far eastern region to the north of the present Trans-Siberian Railroad. The former Soviet government neglected motor transport because of the high costs of constructing and maintaining roads as well as the higher overall shipping costs. About half of the roads are surfaced with concrete or asphalt; the rest are gravel. Few of the country's roads are more than two lanes wide. Like the railroad network, the road network is most dense in the European part of the country. In the late 1980s the merchant fleet of the former USSR ranked among the largest in the world, with more than 6700 vessels and an aggregate displacement of 29. 2 million deadweight tons. The principal civilian seaports in Russia include Novorossiysk on the Black Sea; St. Petersburg and Kaliningrad on the Baltic Sea; Nakhodka, Vostochnyy, Vladivostok, and Vanino on the Pacific coast; and Murmansk and Arkhangelsk on the Arctic coast. The Volga River is the most important inland waterway in Russia. It carries more than half the river traffic of the country. Navigation on this system was enhanced by the construction of seven major dams as well as the Volga-Don Canal in the south and the Volga-Baltic Waterway in the north; the Volga-Don Canal provides a sea outlet through the Black Sea, the Volga-Baltic Waterway, through the Baltic Sea. Major ports along the Volga River are Rybinsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Samara, Volgograd, and Astrakhan. Another major port, Rostov-na-Donu, is on the Sea of Azov near the mouth of the Don River. The ports of Moscow are provided with connections to the Volga system through the Moscow Canal that runs north from Moscow to the Volga River. In Siberia and the far eastern region, rivers are the only transportation system in areas remote from the railroad. Most Siberian rivers, including the Lena, Yenisey, and Ob', flow north to the Arctic Ocean, thus limiting their importance in a region where eastern-western links are vital. The eastward-flowing Amur River is the chief navigable stream of the far eastern region. Russia has an extensive network of natural gas and oil pipelines, most of which run east to west. Oil pipelines connect producing areas in western Siberia and the Volga-Urals fields with consuming areas in European Russia and other European countries. Pipelines also transport natural gas westward from northwestern Siberia, northeastern European Russia, and the northern Caucasus. Several pipelines connect Russia to gas and oil fields in Central Asian republics and western Kazakhstan. Other pipelines run south and east from western Siberia as far as Irkutsk. A few minor, isolated pipelines are found in northern Siberia and the far eastern region. Currency and Banking The basic monetary unit of Russia is the ruble, consisting of 100 kopeks. For decades the former USSR did not allow the ruble to circulate in world markets, instead setting an arbitrary value relative to foreign currencies; the official conversion rate in 1991 was 0. 57 ruble per U. S. $1. Beginning in late 1991 the Russian government took decisive steps to liberalize ruble convertibility, after which the value of the ruble plummeted. In 1992 the ruble's value fell to less than one-hundredth of a U. S. $1, and in 1993 it dropped to less than one-thousandth of a dollar. The ruble continues to be the sole currency in several former Soviet republics. The Russian government issued a new ruble devoid of Soviet insignia. The structure of banking in Russia has changed significantly since the mid-1980s. In the last years of the USSR, the subsidiary banks of Gosbank, the federal bank of the USSR, were converted into commercial banks and relicensed under the new Central Bank of Russia. The five large Soviet sectoral banks (a general savings bank, the foreign trade bank, and banks for the social sector, agriculture, and construction and industry) were either converted to commercial banks or closed. The remaining sectoral banks are no longer assigned specialized functions or clientele by the government, although they have retained much of their former clientele through inertia. The converted sectoral banks are much larger than recently established commercial banks. Assets of the largest former sectoral bank exceeded 110 billion rubles in mid-1991, versus 1. 5 billion rubles on average for the leading new commercial banks. The two types of banks also differ in the clientele they serve; former sectoral banks primarily serve state enterprises, while the new commercial banks generally serve private businesses. Only 12 foreign banks have been granted permission to operate in the country. In November 1993 the Russian government issued regulations restricting the activities of foreign-owned banks. Led by its chairperson, who opposed radical reform, the Central Bank of Russia became politically involved in the early 1990s in the struggle between the government and the Supreme Soviet over economic reform. The bank, which is nominally subordinate to the Supreme Soviet, issued credits far in excess of government requests (up to 50 percent over government guidelines according to some estimates), which hindered reform efforts by supporting inefficient enterprises and fueling inflation. Under the 1993 constitution, the Central Bank of Russia is independent of direct government or legislative control, although its chairperson will be appointed by the State Duma acting under the president's recommendations. Foreign Trade From the end of World War II in 1945 through the mid-1980s, political considerations dictated that the former USSR's principal trading partners be socialist countries, notably those of Eastern Europe. Even before the political upheavals at the close of the 1980s, however, both the USSR and its socialist allies had found it necessary to import more advanced technology from the developed Western countries. By 1987 members of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON or CMEA) accounted for 60 percent of Soviet exports and 64 percent of imports, while developed countries supplied 23 percent of Soviet imports and purchased 21 percent of exports. Among the socialist countries, the former East Germany was the USSR's leading trade partner, followed by the former Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, and Bulgaria. The USSR's main trading partners outside the socialist bloc were the former West Germany, Italy, and Japan. In recent years the pattern of Russia's external trade has changed considerably. Developed Western countries now account for more than half of Russia's trade activities outside of the former Soviet republics (60 percent in 1992). Germany is Russia's leading trading partner (excluding trade with the former Soviet republics), with 17 percent of total trade in the first quarter of 1993. In contrast, former COMECON countries comprised only 20 percent of total exports from Russia (excluding trade with the former Soviet republics), and less than 16 percent of total imports to Russia. Developing countries accounted for roughly 11 percent of Russia's total trade outside the former USSR. Another notable change in Russia's external trade has been a sharp decline in trade volume. In 1992 exports to areas outside of the former USSR were less than two-thirds of the 1988 export level, while imports were less than half of the 1988 level. Foreign trade fell even further in the first quarter of 1993, which was caused in part by new import tariffs and additional controls on strategically sensitive exports. Attempts to determine Russia's true trade balance, however, are complicated by the existence of barter trade and the illegal transfer of Russian assets abroad. Barter trade constituted an estimated 40 percent of total exports and 26 percent of total imports in 1992. Goods are bartered primarily with the former Soviet republics, most of whom still receive Russian fuel at subsidized prices. As to the illegal transfer of Russian assets, some estimates place the total amount of illegal capital outflow to date at $10 billion or more. Tourism Tourism was a major source of foreign exchange for the former USSR, and despite political differences with many Western countries, the Soviet government developed procedures to cater to this activity. A huge state organization, Intourist, handled all touring arrangements, and many beryozka, or hard-currency, stores were established to sell a wide variety of souvenirs to foreign tourists. Student travel was handled by Sputnik, the international youth excursion bureau. Each year about 7 million people visited the USSR; slightly more than half of these visitors were from the countries of Eastern Europe. The Soviet government encouraged domestic travel, and each year millions of Soviet citizens visited parts of the country remote from their own homes. The capital city of Moscow, in particular, was the destination of many Soviet vacationers. In post-USSR Russia, tourism continues to be an important source of business, and the country contains a wide variety of tourist attractions. Primary cultural attractions include czarist retreats near St. Petersburg, the Old Town of Novgorod, the Golden Circle of medieval towns surrounding Moscow, and numerous museums, galleries, theaters, and architectural points of interest in the cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg. Resorts on the Black Sea provide vacation destinations which are popular with foreign and domestic tourists alike. Cruises along the Volga River are also popular. The Caucasus Mountains offer a variety of alpine sports, such as hiking, camping, mountain climbing, and fishing. Lake Baykal, the deepest freshwater lake in the world and home to numerous unique animal and plant species, attracts thousands of visitors annually. Vacation rides on the Trans-Siberian Railroad are also in great demand. Government Russia's government was the last republic-level government to be established among the republics of the former USSR. Russia's territory was established early in the Soviet period, but lacked the administrative and cultural institutions that characterized other Soviet republics. Only in the last years of the USSR were such Soviet institutions as a Supreme Soviet, a Communist party structure, and a KGB (Komitet gosudarstvennoy bezopasnosti, Russian for “Committee for State Security”) established in Russia. Even with these institutions, real power in Russia continued to be exercised largely by the central authorities of the Communist party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) until the dissolution of the USSR. In addition, power relations between governmental institutions were not firmly established during the Soviet period, and since independence the lack of clear lines of authority has aggravated a power struggle between reformers and conservatives in the republic. After a prolonged struggle, President Boris Yeltsin, supported by pro-reform forces of the executive branch, called for a new constitution, which was approved by popular referendum in December 1993. Prior to the new constitution, Ruslan Khasbulatov, chairman of the Supreme Soviet, the country's standing legislature, was Yeltsin's leading opponent. Khasbulatov was aided by an array of conservative parties, regional forces seeking independence, and industrial bureaucrats grown accustomed to large-scale subsidies during the Soviet period. The Constitutional Court, the highest judicial body, played a mediating role at times, although on most major decisions the court ruled against Yeltsin. Although he lost several important battles in the first 18 months of Russian independence, Yeltsin scored a resounding victory in a popular referendum held on April 25, 1993, on his performance as president and the course of economic reforms. Buoyed by the referendum victory, Yeltsin convened a constituent assembly in mid-1993 to replace the greatly amended Soviet-era constitution of 1978. Approved in December, the constitution eliminates the vice presidency, establishes a bicameral legislature, and gives the president power to dissolve the State Duma (the lower house of the legislature), under certain conditions. Under this new constitution, the prime minister is second in command and assumes the duties of the presidency if the president dies or is unable to perform the functions of office. Executive The Russian executive branch is headed by a president, who has sweeping powers under the 1993 constitution. The president serves as the commander in chief of the armed forces and chairs the Security Council, the central defense decision-making body. Along with the defense minister, the president has control of the nuclear launch codes. The president also has the power to appoint the prime minister, subject to ratification by the State Duma. If the State Duma rejects the candidate for prime minister, the president can dissolve the legislature and call for new elections. Legislative Under the 1993 constitution, Russia's national legislature, the Federal Assembly, is composed of a two-chamber body, the State Duma and the Council of the Federation. The 450 members of the State Duma are elected by popular vote. The Council of the Federation is composed of two representatives from each of the 89 republics and regions that make up the Russian Federation. The legislature confirms the president's nomination for prime minister. Legislators elected in December 1993 will serve only two-year terms. Beginning in 1996, they will serve four-year terms, as mandated by the constitution. Judiciary The highest judicial body in Russia is the Constitutional Court, a 13-member body originally created in October 1991 by the Congress of People's Deputies, the highest legislative authority under the 1978 constitution. Yeltsin suspended the court in the fall of 1993. It was modified by the newly elected State Duma in April 1994. According to the duma's legislation, judges will be elected for 12 years, instead of life terms, as was the case under the 1978 constitution. The court's mandate is to rule on the constitutionality of legislative and executive actions, and its members are expected to act in a nonpartisan manner. Local Government Russia is composed of 32 ethnic divisions—21 republics, 1 autonomous oblast, and 10 autonomous okrugs—and 55 administrative divisions: 49 oblasts and 6 krays (provinces). Separate administrative districts exist for major cities, such as Moscow and St. Petersburg. These political divisions vary in size from the Republic of Sakha (Yakutiya), which has a total area of more than 3. 1 million sq km (about 1. 2 million sq mi), to the Republic of Adygeya, which has a total area of 7600 sq km (about 2934 sq mi). The republics, autonomous oblast, and autonomous okrugs are ethnically based political units that are direct successors to earlier ethnically based Soviet political units, with the exception of the Chechen and Ingush republics, which were combined into a single entity during the Soviet period. The titles of the ethnic units, however, have changed considerably. For most of the period after World War II (1939-1945), the RSFSR contained 16 autonomous republics, 5 autonomous oblasts, and 10 autonomous okrugs. In late 1990 the term “autonomous” was dropped from the names of the republics, and on July 3, 1991, 4 of the 5 autonomous oblasts became republics. The Jewish Autonomous Oblast, located on the Amur River in the far eastern region, was the only ethnic oblast not elevated to the rank of a republic. Although the republics are based on indigenous, non-Russian ethnic groups, Russians make up a sizable portion of the population in each republic. Non-Russian ethnic groups constitute a clear majority in only five of the republics, while Russians are the majority in nine. After the dissolution of the USSR, the ethnic republics sought more autonomy within Russia. A treaty on relations between the federal government and the republics was signed in March 1992 outlining the rights and responsibilities of both levels of government. The treaty was signed by all but two of the republics, the Republic of Tatarstan and the Chechen Republic, both of whom agitated for complete independence from Russia. The treaty was eclipsed, however, by the approval of a new constitution in 1993 which superseded the treaty agreement. In the 1993 constitution, the republics are granted special rights, including the right to adopt their own constitutions, anthems, and flags. Leaders of the administrative regions, many of which are much richer and populous than the ethnic republics, protested against their regions' inferior status in relation to the republics. Russia's constituent republics are: Republic of Adygeya Republic of Altay Republic of Bashkortostan Republic of Buryatiya Chechen Republic Republic of Chuvash Republic of Dagestan Ingush Republic Kabardino-Balkar Republic Republic of Kalmykiya Karachay-Cherkess Republic Republic of Kareliya Republic of Khakasiya Republic of Komi Republic of Mari-El Mordovian Republic North Ossetian Republic Republic of Sakha (Yakutiya) Republic of Tatarstan Republic of Tuva Udmurt Republic Political Parties Since the late 1980s the political scene in Russia has undergone a dramatic change from a single-party, totalitarian state to a chaotic, fractious, emerging multiparty democracy. The Communist party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) has been replaced by hundreds of political groupings, factions, movements, and parties that span a wide political spectrum from Monarchists to Communists. The parties range in size from a few members to more than half a million members. The life span of some of the smaller political groups is extremely short, such as the Nonparty Deputies and Cooperation parliamentary factions, which have already disappeared. Alliances between larger groupings are equally unstable, and the political scene is characterized by frequently-shifting coalitions. Individual personalities influence political formations to a high degree, and the political agendas of many parties are vague and poorly documented. Political groups can be divided into three general categories: democratic, Communist-nationalist, and centrist. The democratic political movement grew rapidly during the last years of the USSR when the term “democratic” was used synonymously with “anti-Communist. ” With the breakup of the USSR, democrats lost much of their focus and a great deal of their political following, although they are still very influential. Democrats seek to transform Russia into a modern, Western-style, democratic-capitalist country, and they generally support President Yeltsin and his policies. The leading democratic groups are Russia's Choice and Yabloko (Apple) blocs. The Communist-nationalist movement is a disparate mix of traditional Communists and neo-Nazi Nationalists that seek to safeguard Russia's military and economic status. It includes the largest party in numerical terms, the Communist party of the Russian Federation (CP-RF), although not the most politically influential; the group claims 600, 000 members. The CP-RF was banned by President Yeltsin in 1991, but the ban was overturned by the Constitutional Court in November 1992. The National Salvation Front, another Communist-nationalist group banned by Yeltsin, was also returned to its legal status by the Constitutional Court. The Liberal Democratic party, headed by the ultra-conservative Vladimir Zhirinovsky, is another prominent party of the far-right movement. The third category of political groups, the centrist movement, includes some “democratic” organizations, such as the Democratic party of Russia, which broke away from the Democratic Russia Movement in a dispute over the dissolution of the USSR. For the most part the political center is occupied by industrial managers and bureaucrats who resist radical reform and advocate a strong governmental role in the economy. Defense The structure of the armed forces in Russia has changed radically in the post-Soviet period. Immediately after the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, the armed forces were controlled by the military command of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), which inherited the massive Soviet arsenal. In May 1992, however, Russia created its own military structure in response to the formation of separate armies by several CIS states, notably Ukraine. The CIS military command continued to function for another year, although its power was greatly reduced. It was finally abolished in June 1993 and most of its functions transferred to the Russian military command. Today Russia has about 2, 030, 000 troops in the army, navy, and air force. Men 18 or older must serve for 18 months in the army or two years in the navy or air force. Defense policy is formulated by the Security Council, an executive body established in May 1992. The Security Council consists of a chairperson, a secretary, three other permanent members, and non-permanent members appointed by the president. The Russian president serves as chairperson. Since June 1993 Marshal Evgeniy Shaposhnikov, the former chief of the CIS forces, has served as the council's secretary. Issues are decided by a simple majority, with each permanent member having an equal vote. Non-permanent members cannot vote, but they can take part in discussions. The president issues the council's decisions in the form of decrees. The state of readiness of the Russian armed forces has declined substantially since independence. The defense establishment is beset by a host of problems, including recruitment shortfalls, inadequate housing, aging equipment, and low morale. Despite these problems, the Russian military is engaged in several peacekeeping missions in Moldova, Georgia, Tajikistan, and elsewhere. Almost all of these military actions are in former Soviet republics, except for air strikes against rebel Tajik forces in Afghanistan. History Formerly an empire in Europe and western and northern Asia, Russia comprises a territory that until 1991 was, for the most part, included in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), established following the Russian Revolution of 1917. The term Russia is commonly applied to the Russian Federation, the largest and most influential of the 15 former constituent republics of the USSR, and an independent nation since December 25, 1991. In its strictest sense, the term Russia is used historically to connote the former Russian Empire. (Even more narrowly, it refers to the land of the Great Russians, the chief ethnic component of the Russian Federation. ) In this section, references to Russia dated before 1917 use the narrower definitions mentioned above; references after December 25, 1991, refer to the independent nation of Russia. At its greatest extent, in 1914, the Russian Empire included about 22 million sq km (about 8. 5 million sq mi), an estimated one-sixth of the land area of the earth, divided into four general regions: Russia proper, comprising the easternmost part of Europe and including the Grand Duchy of Finland and most of Poland; the Caucasus; all of northern Asia, or Siberia; and Russian Central Asia, divided into the regions of the Steppes, in the southwest, and Russian Turkestan, in the southeast. Origins of the Russian People During the pre-Christian era the vast territory that became Russia was sparsely inhabited by groups of nomadic tribes, many of which were described by Greek and Roman writers. The largely unknown north, a region of extensive forests, was inhabited by tribes later known collectively as Slavs, the ancestors of the modern Russian people. Far more important was the south, where the indeterminate region known as Scythia was occupied by a succession of Asian peoples, including, chronologically, the Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians. In these early times, Greek traders and colonists established many trading posts and settlements, particularly along the north coast of the Black Sea and in the Crimea. Invasions by Early Inhabitants Migratory movements by exterior peoples were facilitated by the stretches of open plain. Such migrations resulted in successive invasions, the establishment of settlements, and the assimilation of new ethnological elements. Thus, in the early centuries of the Christian era, the Asian peoples of Scythia were displaced by the Goths, who established an Ostrogothic kingdom on the Black Sea. In the 4th century AD the invading Huns conquered and thereafter expelled the Goths, destroying Scythia. The Huns held the territory constituting present-day Ukraine and the region of Bessarabia (now mostly within the republic of Moldova) until their defeat in western Europe in 451. Later came the Avars, followed by the Magyars, and the Khazars, who remained influential until about the mid-10th century. Meanwhile, during this long period of successive invasions, the Slavic tribes dwelling northeast of the Carpathian Mountains had begun a series of migratory movements. As these migrations took place, the western tribes eventually evolved as the Moravians, Poles, Czechs, and Slovaks; the southern tribes as the Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and the slavicized Bulgars; and the eastern tribes as the modern Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians. The Eastern Slavs became renowned traders, and the systems of rivers and waterways extending through the territory from the Valday Hills facilitated the establishment of Slav trading posts, notably the cities of Kyyiv (also known as Kiev), in the south, and Novgorod, in the north. The Valday Hills region in northwestern Russia is the high point of the eastern European plain and the source of most of its rivers. The easy portages in this region allowed the transport of goods from the Baltic to the Black Sea. Most of the expansion and migratory movements of the Eastern Slavs were from the Valday Hills. Control of this strategic region was an important element in the Russian domination of eastern Europe. The House of Rurik The political organization of the Eastern Slavs was still largely tribal; they had created no unified system through which their constant tribal conflicts could be resolved. According to Russian tradition recorded in the Primary Russian Chronicle, the chief source of much of early Russian history, internal dissension and feuds among the Eastern Slavs around Novgorod became so violent that they voluntarily chose to call upon a foreign prince who could unite them into one strong state. Their choice was Rurik, or Ryurik, a Scandinavian chief, who in 862 became ruler of Novgorod. Two other Scandinavians, Dir and Askold, possibly legendary figures, gained control of Kyyiv. Thus, 862 is considered the beginning of the Russian Empire. From the Scandinavians, called Varangians, or Rus, came the name Rossiya, or Russia, meaning “land of the Rus. ” (It is debated, however, whether Rus is derived from ruotsi, the Finnish name for the Swedes, or from Rukhs-As, from the name of an Alanic tribe of southern Russia. ) The establishment of Rurik and the dynasty he founded initiated a period of internal consolidation, expansion of Slav territory, and the spread of the Slavic people, notably toward the northeast and northwest, where the native Finnic strains were largely absorbed or replaced by Slavs. Oleg and Svyatoslav Rurik was succeeded in 879 by his son Igor (reigned 912-945), a child for whom Oleg, Rurik's kinsman, ruled as regent. Prince Oleg, realizing the value of the Kyyiv region, had the Varangian rulers of that city killed in 882 and then united the two centers, establishing his capital at Kyyiv. He extended Russian rule considerably, subduing neighboring tribes, and he led his raiders as far south as Constantinople, where he concluded a commercial treaty with Byzantium in 911, the first authentically dated event in Russian history. From that time Russian cultural and trade relations with the Byzantine Empire became continually closer. Igor assumed power in 912, and in 945 he was succeeded by his widow, Olga, who became a Christian in 955. In 964 Olga abdicated in favor of her son, Svyatoslav, the first prince of the house of Rurik to bear a Slav name. With his government centered in Kyyiv, which rose to a preeminent position among Russian cities, Svyatoslav, who was a great military leader, devoted himself to strengthening the Russian position in the south. He led his troops against the Khazars in the southeast; against the Pechenegs, a warlike, nomadic tribe of the Black Sea steppes; and against the Bulgars. Svyatoslav built a great empire, and commerce and crafts increased under his reign. Vladimir the Great The empire was divided among the prince's three sons, causing dynastic conflicts that were ended in 980, when the youngest son, Vladimir I (see VLADIMIR, SAINT), later known as Vladimir the Great, became sole ruler. The most significant event of his reign was his conversion to Byzantine Christianity in 988 and the institution of that religion as the official religion of the Russian people. After casting off his several pagan wives, he married Anne, sister of the Byzantine emperor Basil II. From its inception, the Russian Orthodox church differed from its Byzantine parent. Services were offered in liturgical Slavonic, and the church enjoyed a large measure of autonomy, even though it remained under the canonical authority of the patriarch of Constantinople and the Russian ruler was in fact its supreme head. Monasteries and churches were built in Byzantine style, however, and Byzantine culture ultimately became the predominant influence in such fields as architecture, art, and music. Yaroslav the Wise Upon the death of Vladimir in 1015, his dominions were divided among his sons, and strife immediately developed. Vladimir's eldest son, Svyatopolk, called The Accursed (reigned 1015, 1018-1019), held the supreme power and, to secure his position, murdered his brothers Boris and Gleb. Svyatopolk was, in turn, defeated and deposed by his brother Yaroslav the Wise, prince of Novgorod. Yaroslav attempted to recreate the empire of his grandfather, Svyatoslav, and by 1036 had succeeded in making himself ruler of all Russia. With him, the state of Kyyiv reached its greatest power. Yaroslav made Kyyiv an imperial capital with magnificent buildings, including the notable Hagia Sophia of Kyyiv (Cathedral of the Holy Wisdom). Schools were opened, and the grand duke revised the first Russian law code, the Russkaya Pravda (Russian Truth). To consolidate the position of his heirs, Yaroslav devised a system of precedence, grading the various principalities from the smallest to Kyyiv, the most powerful, so that, as a grand duke of Kyyiv died, each vassal below him was moved to a larger principality, ending with the throne of Kyyiv. The Decline of Kyyiv Although this unique pattern of precedence was nominally practiced, Yaroslav's death in 1054 signaled the decline of Kyyiv. His sons shared the empire, and each prince tended to divide his lands among his own sons. Russia became a group of petty states almost continuously at war with one another. One final attempt was made to unite the country by Yaroslav's grandson, Vladimir II Monomachus, but his death in 1125 ended efforts to form an alliance, and the fragmentation continued. Other states challenged Kyyiv's supremacy, particularly Galicia and Volhynia in the west; Suzdal, in the upper and central parts of the Volga basin; Chernigov and Novgorod-Severskiy, in the Desna basin; Polatsk, which included the basins of the Daugava (also known as Western Dvina) and the Beresina; Smolensk, occupying the upper parts of the basin of the Daugava and the Dnepr; and Novgorod, by far the largest, occupying the land bounded by the Gulf of Finland, Lake Peipus, the upper reaches of the Volga, the White Sea, and the Northern Dvina River. The decline of Kyyiv was due in part to loss of trade following the sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders in 1204 and the consequent migration of the people of Kyyiv to the north. Novgorod became a flourishing commercial state, which rose to a dominant position and in the 13th century was made the site of a major factory of the Hanseatic League. Kyyiv also lost its importance as the great national and cultural center, its place taken by the cities of Suzdal, Vladimir, and, ultimately, Moscow (founded about 1147). Russia became a loose federation of city-states, held together by a common language, religion, traditions, and customs and ruled by members of the multitudinous house of Rurik, usually at war with one another. Difficulties resulted also from depredations on the frontiers. In the west the Poles, Lithuanians, and the Teutonic Knights encroached on Russian territory. In the south it was constantly raided by the Polovtzy nomads; one of these raids was the subject of the Russian epic The Lay of Igor's Host. The Mongol Invasion In the early 13th century a greater danger than any of these menaced Russia from the east. In 1223 the Mongol armies of Genghis Khan appeared in the southeast. The Polovtzy sent for help to the Russian princes, who came to their aid against this common, greater foe. In 1223, in the Battle of the Kalka River (now Kalmius River), the Polovtzy-Russian coalition was completely routed. After their victory, however, the Mongols were recalled to Asia by the khan and retreated as rapidly as they had come. For 12 years, they made no move in the direction of Russia. Then, in 1237, Batu Khan, grandson of Genghis Khan, led the Mongols back to eastern Russia. On their northward march they captured and destroyed most of the major cities in the Vladimir-Suzdal region. The Mongol sweep was halted by the difficult terrain of the forests and swamps south of Novgorod, and Batu Khan was forced to change the direction of his armies. In 1240 he swept over the southwest, destroying Kyyiv after a desperate defense by that city. The Tatars ravaged Poland and Hungary and progressed as far east as Moravia. In 1242 Batu established his capital at Sarai on the lower Volga (near modern Volgograd), and founded the khanate known as the Golden Horde, which was virtually independent of the Mongol Empire. Ethnic Changes In addition to the havoc it created in Russia, the Mongol invasion was determinative in later Russian history. Tatar control destroyed the elements of self-government by representative assembly that had developed in some Russian cities, arrested the progress of industry and culture, and kept Russia more than two centuries behind the countries of western Europe. Tatar customs, law, and government made their influence felt. The region of Kyyiv was largely depopulated because of massacres and because much of the Russian population had fled west to escape the Mongol advance. One group, culturally influenced by the Poles and Lithuanians, eventually became known as Belarussians, or White Russians. A second group, formed of the Slavic population from the region of Kyyiv and adjacent regions, became known as Little Russians, or Malorussians. The region of old Kyyiv, influenced by foreign languages and customs that were superimposed on the traditions of the old Rus, came to be called Ukraine. In northern Russia, the inhabitants became the principal group of Russian Slavs known as the Great Russians, modified principally by various branches of the Finno-Ugrian population. Tribute to the Khanate Although the Mongols did not attack Novgorod, northwestern Russia was menaced by invaders from the west at the same time. The Swedes descended from the Baltic and sought to penetrate the territories of Novgorod. In 1240 a Swedish army landed on the banks of the Neva, and Prince Alexander Yaroslavevich led a Russian army to meet them. The prince so completely defeated the Swedes that he was thenceforth known as Alexander Nevsky, meaning “of the Neva. ” Two years later the Teutonic Knights, a religious military order, advanced from the west. Alexander led his troops to meet the Germans, crossing the frozen Lake Peipus, and routed them. Faced with continuing danger in the west, Alexander, rather than risk invasion from the south, adopted a policy of loyal submission to the Golden Horde and conciliation with the khan. In 1246 Alexander succeeded his father as grand prince of Novgorod and in 1252 was invested by the khan as grand prince of Vladimir and Suzdal. Most of the Russian princes followed Alexander's example, paying tribute and considering themselves vassals of the Tatar rule. The Growing Importance of Moscow The town of Moscow, in the principality of Vladimir, occupied an exceedingly favorable geographical position in the center of Russia and on the principal trade routes. In 1263 Alexander Nevsky gave Moscow to his younger son, Daniel, progenitor of a line of powerful Muscovite dukes. These rulers were astute men who worked closely with the khans. As Mongol favorites they gradually extended their lands by annexing surrounding territories. In 1328 Daniel's son, Ivan I, became duke of Muscovy. He seems to have influenced the metropolitan of the Russian church to take up residence in Moscow. Thus, given the sanction of the church, the Muscovite dukes began to organize a new Russian state, with themselves as rulers. Beginning with Ivan, the dukes of Muscovy styled themselves princes “of all Russia. ” In the mid-14th century internal dissensions weakened the power of the Golden Horde. Taking advantage of this weakness, the grand duke Dmitry Donskoy made the first successful revolt against the Mongols. In 1380 his important victory over the Mongols at Kukikovo, on the banks of the Don River, gave him his surname Donskoy (“of the Don”) and marked the turning point of Mongol power. Muscovite strength grew steadily thereafter. The Expansion of Muscovy Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, and the Russian Orthodox church thereafter considered Moscow the “third Rome, ” successor to Constantinople and the center of Christian Orthodoxy. The two-headed eagle of Byzantium was incorporated into the Muscovite arms and regarded as the symbol of Holy Russia. A large factor in this investiture of Moscow as a holy, imperial city was the marriage of the grand duke Ivan III Vasilyevich to Zoë Sophia, niece of the last Byzantine emperor. The grand duke began to regard himself as the czar, the autocratic sovereign, rather than the head of the nobility. He added to Muscovy the states of Novgorod in 1478 and Tver in 1485. In 1480, taking advantage of strife among the Mongols, which had divided the Golden Horde into several separate khanates, he refused to pay the annual tribute. The Mongols were too disorganized to enforce payment, and the date is regarded as the end of Tatar domination. Once free of Tatar rule, Ivan turned his attention to the western part of former Kyyivan Russia, then controlled by Lithuania and Poland. He invaded Lithuanian territory in 1492 and 1500; at the end of hostilities in 1503 Moscow controlled many of the borderlands. Ivan's son and successor, Basil III Ivanovich, followed his father's aggressive policy of expansion to the west; he annexed Pskov in 1510, captured Smolensk in 1514, and absorbed the nominally independent grand duchy of Ryazan in 1521. Russian policy thus became, externally, the continued territorial aggrandizement of Muscovy and, internally, the formalization of autocratic rule with concomitant social change. Ivan the Terrible Ivan IV Vasilyevich, called The Terrible, became ruler in 1533 at the age of three, and during his long minority the state was continually torn by a struggle for dominance among the boyar, or noble, class. In 1547 Ivan assumed the throne and became the first Muscovite grand duke to be formally crowned as czar; in the same year he married Anastasia Romanovna, a member of the Romanov family. Ivan opposed the old nobility because of the strife that had disrupted his childhood, and in 1549 he called the first Zemsky Sobor, an irregular national assembly, representing all classes of Russian society except the peasants. His aim was to consolidate his autocratic position by weakening the power of the boyars and the church. In December 1564, Ivan left Moscow and announced that he had abdicated; the following January he agreed to resume the throne after receiving absolute powers. Returning to Moscow, he seized half of Muscovy as his personal property. This territory, called the oprichnina, was a separate administrative unit ruled directly by the czar. Ivan distributed it among his supporters as rewards for military and personal service, thereby establishing a new service corps called oprichniki. In return for the land, the oprichniki acted as Ivan's personal police force. When the boyars, resentful of their diminishing power, plotted against him, Ivan resorted to torture, exile, and execution to repress them. In 1552 Muscovite armies conquered and annexed the Tatar kingdom of Kazan'; Astrakhan became a Russian territory in 1556. The pacification of the southern and eastern frontiers opened the eastern territories to Russian colonization. Muscovy borderlands were increasingly settled by warlike adventurers known as cossacks, many of them runaway peasants. They were concentrated particularly in the Don River basin and around the lower Volga. Some cossacks went farther north, and in 1581 the cossack hetman (leader) Yermak Timofeyevich led an expedition east across the Ural Mountains for the wealthy Stroganov family. Ivan warned Yermak against stirring up the wild tribesmen of the area but forgave him when, in 1581, he brought most of the Ob' River basin under Russian rule, thus beginning the conquest of Siberia. In the west, Ivan led his forces to the Baltic Sea and for a time held Livonia. By the time of his death, however, he had lost all his western conquests. Ivan concluded several trade treaties with England. He also imported many foreign technical and professional experts, a practice continued throughout the history of the Russian monarchy. Although Ivan's name is perpetuated as The Terrible for the savage cruelty and excesses of his later reign, he founded a strong Russian state and set the pattern for supreme czarist rule. Boris Godunov Ivan's son, Fyodor I, was sickly and feeble-minded, and during his reign (1584-1598) he was dominated by his brother-in-law, the boyar Boris Godunov. Directed by Boris, the Russian state continued to increase in wealth and prestige. The discontent of the peasants was augmented in 1597, however, by a law binding the serfs to the soil and legalizing serfdom. In 1598, when Fyodor died childless, ending the house of Rurik, Boris was elected czar by a Zemsky Sobor (National Assembly). Although he ruled with ability, his hold on the throne was uneasy because of the widely held belief that he had murdered Dmitry Ivanovich, a son and legal heir of Ivan the Terrible. Dmitry's mysterious death in 1591 made possible the subsequent appearance of pretenders to his name and ranks, inaugurating a period of unrest and revolt that was known as the Smutnoye Vremya (Time of Troubles). Time of Troubles In 1604 a pretender to the throne calling himself Dmitry I, and known as the False Dmitry, gained the support of some Polish and Lithuanian nobles and the cossacks. Three months after the death of Boris in 1605, Dmitry I entered Moscow and was crowned czar. He was a conscientious and able ruler, but he displeased the boyars, who had hoped for a revival of their power. They revolted, murdered the czar, and elevated Prince Basil Shuysky to the throne. This move was opposed by the cossacks and rebellious peasants, who chafed under oppressive serf laws and feared the severity of boyar rule. They rose in southern Russia and joined a second pretender, Dmitry II, who was already advancing on Moscow. At the same time King Sigismund III of Poland, himself desirous of the Russian throne, invaded from the west, and Sweden, at the request of Basil, sent armed support for the boyar czar. After a long period of fighting and intrigue Basil was deposed in 1610, and the throne was left vacant. Some boyars advanced the candidacy of Wladislaw, the son of Sigismund, and a Polish army entered Moscow, setting itself up as Russian authority. The entire country then fell into a state of anarchy. The situation was at last resolved by the initiative of Kuzma Minin, a Nizhny Novgorod butcher, who succeeded in raising a national army in northeast Russia. Under Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky, who gained the help of some cossacks, this army marched on Moscow and in 1612 expelled the Poles. In 1613 a Zemsky Sobor, representing the chief towns and the church, elected Michael Romanov, great-nephew of Anastasia Romanovna, as czar. Michael thus founded the ruling house of Romanov. Romanov Rule Although social discontent had been one of the primary characteristics of the period known as the Time of Troubles, no real reforms ensued. The greatest effects of the chaotic period were the irreparable ruin of the old boyar nobility and the rise in power of the small landed nobility. Under the first two Romanovs, Michael and his son, Alexis I, who succeeded as czar in 1645, new laws gave the noble landlords more power over serfs. A law code adopted in 1649 only increased the number of refugee serfs, many of whom fled to the cossack settlements along the lower Volga, Dnepr, and Don rivers. In 1670, under the leadership of a Don cossack hetman, Stenka (Stephen) Razin, a great agrarian revolt began in southeastern Russia; it was quelled with great difficulty by the czar's troops a year later. This first major peasant revolt set the pattern for later uprisings by the serfs, who directed their anger at the landed nobility who enslaved them, rather than at the czar. Russia, meanwhile, was advancing to the status of a European power, and in the urban centers influences from western Europe were at last penetrating the isolation caused by the Mongol invasion. Reform in the traditional viewpoints and practices of Moscow was required to form a base for cultural reconciliation with its former territories, regained from Poland and Lithuania. In 1654 the cossacks of the Ukraine, rebelling from Polish rule, offered their allegiance to Czar Alexis. In the resulting war with Poland (1654-1667) Russia was victorious, regaining Smolensk (lost in 1611) as well as the eastern Ukraine, including Kyyiv. The reincorporation of the Ukraine hastened reforms in the ritual of the Russian church. The Ukraine was a metropolitan district of the patriarchate of Constantinople and, in order to integrate western Russia with Moscow, the Ukrainian church had to be induced to accept the Moscow patriarch. The Russian religious leader Nikon, then patriarch of Russia (1652-1658), introduced reforms into the Russian ritual that caused a great schism, as many of the Russian clergy and laity refused to abandon their centuries-old ritual. At a church council in 1667 the traditionalist dissenters, or Raskolniki, were declared schismatics. Thus, millions of so-called Old Believers found themselves excluded from full participation in Russian life. Alexis was succeeded by his son, Fyodor III, under whom Russia successfully fought its first war against the Ottoman Empire. On Fyodor's death in 1682 his half brother, Peter the Great, was named czar (Peter I), but Peter's older half sister, Sophia Alekseyevna, succeeded in having her own brother, the weak-minded Ivan V, declared senior co-ruler, with herself as regent. After an attempt to deprive Peter of his right to the throne and, this failing, to assassinate both him and his mother, Sophia was forced to resign all power in 1689. The Russian Empire The accession of Peter I to the czardom in 1682 marked the beginning of a period during which Russia became a major European power. Peter the Great Peter was greatly attracted by the culture of Western Europe, particularly that of Prussia. In 1697 he led a technical and diplomatic mission to the West; he was absent from Russia for 18 months. Peter attempted, by decrees and forced reforms, to transform the traditional society of Moscow into a Western one and to make Russia a major power in Europe. He decreed the reorganization of the Russian army and navy, government, and social classes along Western lines. By direct orders, he encouraged the development of Russian industry and trade, technical training, education, and the sciences. Moreover, during his reign Russia began a series of great territorial acquisitions. Peter's greatest military campaigns were in the west, and his principal conflict, the Great Northern War (1700-1721), was with the strongest Baltic power of the time, Sweden. Control of the Baltic Sea was necessary for the creation of a great navy and the expansion of Russian foreign trade. Peter's forces were badly defeated by the Swedes at Narva (now in Estonia) in 1700. The Swedes, however, did not pursue the Russians, thus enabling Peter to reorganize his forces and attack Swedish bases in Livonia. In 1703 Peter began construction of his new capital city of Saint Petersburg on territory taken from Sweden; the government moved there from Moscow in 1714. The Russian army crushed the Swedes at Poltava, in 1709, and Russia gained supremacy in the Baltic. By the terms of the Treaty of Nystad (August 30, 1721), Russia acquired Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, part of Karelia, and several Baltic islands. With Russian dominance in northern Europe, the Byzantine conception of the czar was exchanged for the Latin conception and title of emperor; when Peter was formally proclaimed emperor in 1721, the Muscovite state became the Russian Empire. Peter's Successors Peter's strong rule was followed by a period of weakness on the throne. His son, Alexis, had been charged with treason and died in prison in 1718, probably from torture. The throne went to Peter's second wife, Catherine I. After her death in 1727 it passed to a succession of rulers as a result of intrigues and coups, often engineered by the palace guards. Peter II, the son of Alexis, was chosen emperor after Catherine; he was succeeded in 1730 by Anna Ivanovna, daughter of Ivan V. Anna, a duchess of Courland, filled the court with her Prussian favorites and ruled as a despot. She was succeeded by Ivan VI, an eight-week-old grandnephew. A palace conspiracy the next year placed Elizabeth Petrovna, youngest daughter of Peter the Great, on the throne. Under her rule (1741-1762) a national revival took place. In a war with Sweden (1741-1743) Russia gained a portion of Finland. The empress also joined Austria and France in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) against Prussia. Her nephew and successor, Peter III, was an admirer of King Frederick II of Prussia, and at his accession in 1762 concluded a separate peace with Frederick. Peter was swiftly deposed and murdered in the same year. His wife, a German princess by birth, ascended the throne as Catherine II; she became known as Catherine the Great. Catherine the Great Catherine was the first of the successors of Peter the Great to understand and further his policies. With striking success, she carried out ambitious plans for Russian expansion. Her campaigns took two main directions. First, she turned her armies against the Ottoman Empire in order to acquire warm-water Black Sea ports necessary for Russian commerce. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1768 to 1774, Russia acquired territory in the Crimea, and the Tatar Crimea region was annexed to the Russian Empire in 1783. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1787 to 1792 Russia acquired all the territory west to the Dniester River, including the Black Sea port of Ochakov. The second phase of Catherine's wars dealt with territories in the west; here, as a result of the three partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795), Russia gained 468, 000 sq km (180, 000 sq mi) of land with about 6 million inhabitants. Catherine's domestic policies echoed the Westernization of Peter's reign. She chose French culture as a guide and, for a time, appeared to be interested in the liberal theories espoused by such French writers as Voltaire. In 1767 Catherine issued an outline of proposed legal and administrative reforms, particularly in regard to serfs, but they were not carried out because of the opposition of the nobility. Her own opposition was stirred by a cossack and peasant uprising led by the cossack Yemelyan Ivanovich Pugachov. The rebellion was suppressed in 1775, and Pugachov was executed. Catherine, instead of relaxing the oppressive serf laws, strengthened them. After the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789, the empress discarded her liberal views entirely. Paul I and Alexander I Catherine was succeeded in 1796 by her son Paul I. He inaugurated some reforms in the treatment of serfs, limiting their obligatory work for landowners to three days a week. In foreign affairs he joined Austria, Great Britain, Naples, and the Ottoman Empire in the Second Coalition against France. A despotic and unbalanced ruler, he was assassinated in his palace in 1801 by a conspiracy that was led by the nobility. His son, Alexander I, had been Catherine's favorite grandson. Imbued with the liberal policies of her early reign and educated by the Swiss thinker Frédéric César de La Harpe, Alexander began his reign by granting amnesty to political prisoners, projecting a constitution for the empire, and repealing many of his father's restrictive measures. His advanced domestic policies, however, were soon abandoned because of involvement in foreign wars. In 1805 Russia joined Great Britain, Austria, and Sweden in the Third Coalition against Napoleon I. After French armies crushed Prussia in the Battle of Jena on October 14, 1806 and defeated Russia at Friedland on June 14, 1807, Alexander reversed himself and allied Russia with France by the Treaty of Tilsit (1807). By this agreement Alexander, in return for helping France against Great Britain, was allowed freedom of action against Sweden and Turkey. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1806 to 1812, Russia received Bessarabia from Turkey. The Russo-Swedish War of 1808 and 1809 ended with Russian acquisition of the Åland Islands and all of Finland. In 1813, as a result of war with Iran following the Russian annexation of Georgia in 1801, Russia also acquired Dagestan and other areas. Meanwhile, relations with France had deteriorated, and in 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia. The campaign was a disaster for the French emperor. His troops entered Moscow on September 14, but the city was burned by the Russians, and the French were forced to fall back in a retreat which became a rout, exposed to hunger, cold, and constant guerrilla attacks in a country devastated by the Russian “scorched-earth” policy. After the French retreat from Moscow, Alexander became a central figure in the alliance that accomplished the overthrow of Napoleon. In 1815, at the Congress of Vienna, most of the duchy of Warsaw was awarded to Russia. Although the last decade of Alexander's reign was marked by reaction and repressive measures, closer intellectual intercourse between Western Europe and Russia resulted in much liberalization of political views among the Russian intelligentsia, particularly students, the upper middle class, and the younger landed nobility. Viewing Russia as a despotic state with an intricate, corrupt bureaucracy, little concerned with the oppressed masses, they began to form secret political societies, thus initiating the revolutionary movement. Nicholas I After Alexander's death in 1825 without issue, the throne passed to his youngest brother, Nicholas I. Taking advantage of some uncertainty regarding the succession, a group of young officers organized the Decembrist revolt in an effort to form a constitutional monarchy, or even a republic (see DECEMBRISTS). Nicholas promptly suppressed the revolt and increased discontent by decreeing further reactionary measures, including a new secret police to compel complete obedience to the emperor, strict censorship of all publications, and removal of all material regarded as politically dangerous from school texts and curricula. After the Revolutions of 1848 that occurred throughout Europe, Nicholas began a vigorous campaign against liberal ideas in education and in intellectual circles in general. University chairs of history and philosophy were abolished as potentially dangerous, and student bodies were reduced to 300 in each university. Numerous writers were arrested; some were exiled, among them the novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky, and sentenced to hard labor. Nicholas also made some efforts to expand the empire. This expansion took three directions: southwest toward the Mediterranean, involving interference in the Balkan provinces of Turkey; south into the Caucasus and Central Asia; and east to the Pacific Ocean. A war with Iran began in 1826 and ended two years later with the Russian acquisition of part of Armenia, including the strategic city of Yerevan. At the same time Nicholas espoused the cause of the Greek revolutionists, and a Russian fleet joined the British and French vessels that destroyed the Turkish fleet in the Battle of Navarino on October 20, 1827. In the resulting Russo-Turkish War of 1828 and 1829, Turkey was defeated. The Treaty of Adrianople (September 14, 1829) gave Russia suzerainty over the peoples of the Caucasus and the emperor a protectorate over Moldavia and Walachia, with rights of interference. A major Polish revolt against Russian rule began in 1830. Polish nationalists expelled their Russian governor and organized a provisional government. Russian troops forced the capitulation of the rebel leaders in a year. As a result, scarcely any autonomy was left to Poland. Increasing Russian power in the Middle East was regarded as a threat by other European powers, particularly after Russian forces appeared in the Dardanelles by agreement with Turkey in 1833. Great Britain, France, Prussia, and Austria formed a bloc to circumvent Russian plans for eventual mastery of Constantinople. In 1853, after Nicholas invaded the Danubian principalities, Turkey declared war on Russia. In the Crimean War (1853-1856) that followed, Russia was faced by British, French, and Sardinian, as well as Turkish, troops and was utterly defeated. Alexander II Nicholas died in 1855, and peace was concluded a year later by his son, Alexander II. Russia was compelled to relinquish Kars and part of Bessarabia, the Black Sea was neutralized, and the Russian protectorate over the Danubian principalities was abolished. This setback in the southwest, however, had little effect on the Russian advance to the Pacific Ocean and toward the Persian Gulf. In 1850 a Russian settlement was established on the estuary of the Amur River, and the northern half of the island of Sakhalin was occupied in 1855. Three years later the entire Amur region and the coast south to the city of Vladivostok (founded in 1860) was annexed. In Central Asia the empire was extended almost to the border of India, with the annexations of Toshkent (1865), Bokhara (1866), Samarqand (1868), Khiva (1873), and Kokand (1876). Merv (now Mary) was annexed in 1884, three years after Alexander's death. Domestically, Alexander's reign was an era of reform, necessary after the debacle of the Crimean War. In 1861 he decreed the emancipation of the serfs. This necessitated a reform of local government, and in 1864 Zemstvos, or district assemblies, were introduced to deal with local problems such as education, public welfare, and health services. The judicial system was revised and trial by jury instituted for serious criminal offenses. The emperor refused, however, to countenance a constitution or the organization of a representative assembly. Revolutionary movements increased and adopted definite policies and aims. One prominent group advocated nihilism, which aimed to tear down the basis of the existing society and build a new one on its ruins. The narodniki, a populist movement, worked for a peasant uprising. Revolutionaries were also prominent in Poland, and in 1863 the Poles rose in a second major rebellion against Russia. After it was quelled, Poland was deprived of the last vestiges of its autonomy and was extensively Russified. Russia resumed its aggressive attitude toward Turkey after 1871. The overthrow of Napoleon III, a principal opponent of Russian interference in the Balkans, enabled Russia to widen its sphere of influence there. When Serbia and Montenegro revolted against Turkey in 1876, Russia intervened on their behalf. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877 and 1878, Alexander obtained major concessions from Turkey, but these were largely negated by a conference of the European powers at Berlin, fearful of Russian domination of the Dardanelles. The End of the Empire The essential failure of the war increased popular discontent with the government. Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 by a bomb thrown by a revolutionist. Alexander III Alexander II's son, Alexander III, instituted rigid censorship and police supervision of intellectual activities. The power of the Zemstvos was drastically curbed, and Russification programs were forced upon the many racial minorities within the empire. The oppression of Jews was particularly severe. They were forced to live in certain areas, not permitted to enter specific professions, and killed in great numbers (see POGROM). Revolutionary propaganda was eagerly accepted by Russian factory workers, and Marxist theories found many supporters. An intensified program of industrialization resulted in a great increase in the number of workers. Such industrialized cities as St. Petersburg and Moscow became notorious for the miserable working and living conditions of factory laborers. An underground revolutionary movement soon developed among the workers. Nicholas II Nicholas II, eldest son of Alexander III, ascended the throne in 1894. Although well-intentioned, he was a weak ruler, easily dominated by others and a firm believer in the autocratic principles taught him by his father. His wife, Alexandra, bore him four daughters and a son, Alexis, who suffered from hemophilia. In their vain attempts to effect a cure for him, Nicholas and Alexandra became prey to quacks and religious fanatics, notably the Siberian monk Grigory Yefimovich Rasputin. Autocracy, oppression, and police control increased under Nicholas. They were met by an upsurge of terrorist acts. From outside Russia revolutionary leaders, including notably Vladimir Lenin, directed the Socialist movement. In foreign affairs, Russian interests in Manchuria were opposed to those of the expanding Japanese Empire, and the resulting friction led to a Japanese attack on February 8, 1904. The Revolution of 1905 Needing popular support for the prosecution of the war with Japan, the government permitted a congress of Zemstvos to meet in St. Petersburg in November 1904. When the demands of the congress for reform went unheeded by the government, they were adopted by Socialist groups. A demonstration was called by labor leaders. On January 22, 1905, thousands of persons led by Georgy Apollonovich Gapon, a revolutionary priest, marched to the Winter Palace to present their demands. They were fired on by imperial troops; hundreds were killed and wounded on that Bloody Sunday. The massacre was the signal for a revolution. Strikes and riots began throughout the industrialized sections of Russia. The rush of events, combined with continued disaster in the war, influenced the government to make concessions. The emperor promised a representative assembly, or Duma. He issued decrees granting freedom of worship to Old Believers (April 29) and more liberty for Poland (May 16). The tide of revolution could not be halted, however. Soldiers and sailors mutinied, and on October 14, a soviet, or council of workers' delegates, was formed at St. Petersburg to lead a general strike. The strike was accompanied by uprisings of nationalist groups, peasant unrest, and turmoil throughout the empire. To this was added the complete defeat of Russia in the war with Japan. The government threw troops against the revolutionists and gave support to the conservative groups that were opposed to the radical workers' soviets. The arrest of the St. Petersburg soviet in December brought about a violent worker's rebellion in Moscow, which was quelled by army troops. By the beginning of 1906, the government was again in control. The Dumas The first Duma was scheduled to meet in May 1906. Before the meeting, however, the government announced the Fundamental Laws, which reserved autocratic powers for the emperor. When the Duma demanded vigorous reform, it was dissolved after two months. A second Duma met in 1907, and it was also dissolved. The revolutionary movement again began to mount. It was met by repression, directed particularly against minorities. Meanwhile, conservative and moderate reform movements began to cooperate with the government and became the dominant influence in the third Duma, which enacted various moderate reform measures. World War I The outbreak of World War I in 1914 put a temporary halt to the revolutionary activities of the radicals. The war was directly precipitated when Russia refused to stand aside while Austria invaded Serbia after the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria at Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. The fourth Duma was then in session, and it rallied popular support to the government. By the end of 1914 severe reverses had been inflicted on the Russian army, notably in East Prussia. The reverses increased in 1915 and, except for temporary victories, the defeat began to assume the proportions of the Crimean and Japanese disasters. Lack of supplies and transport, and the inefficiency of military leaders, disheartened the troops. Desertions mounted, and the war became unpopular throughout Russia. Moreover, repression and corruption in the government continued. The emperor was dominated by his German-born wife, Alexandra, who was distrusted by the Russians and largely under the control of Rasputin. Rasputin became the chief influence in the empire, controlling even military decisions. His conduct was so resented that in December 1916, a group of aristocrats, including members of the imperial family, murdered him. Revolutionary agitation increased, and in February 1917, riots began in Moscow. When troops were ordered to fire upon the rioters, they instead joined them. Demands for changes in the government finally resulted in the abdication of Nicholas II and his son on March 15, leaving the administration to a provisional government organized by the fourth Duma. The abdications ended the Russian Empire. Russian Revolution and the Soviet Era For information about the Russian Revolution, see RUSSIAN REVOLUTION. For the history of Russia after the Russian Revolution and before its independence in 1991, see UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS. Russia Since Independence Shortly after the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, a power struggle emerged between conservative and reformist forces in Russia. President Boris Yeltsin, who was elected in June 1991 by popular vote, originally was granted sweeping powers by the Congress of People's Deputies (CPD), one of the two legislative bodies that existed under the 1978 constitution. Yeltsin used his powers to initiate a program of sweeping economic reform and to establish a network of regional appointees in order to bypass local legislatures dominated by neo-Communists. Conservatives, led by Supreme Soviet Chairman Ruslan Khasbulatov, sought to reduce Yeltsin's powers after he launched a campaign of radical economic reform in early 1992. At a meeting of the Congress of People's Deputies (CPD) in December 1992, Acting Prime Minister Yegor Gaidar (1992), the chief architect of the government's plan for economic reform, was replaced by Viktor Chernomyrdin, a longtime member of the Communist party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) and the Minister of the Gas Industry of the former USSR. The CPD also rescinded several powers granted to Yeltsin, including control over local administrators. That same month the Constitutional Court limited Yeltsin's ban on the CPSU to the national organization, effectively legalizing the Communist party in Russia. Yeltsin protested the reduction of his powers, and an agreement was reached with the CPD at the end of 1992 to hold a popular referendum on a new constitution. Conservatives in local and national legislative bodies resisted the organization of a national referendum, however, prompting Yeltsin to declare emergency presidential rule on March 20, 1993. Yeltsin's announcement of emergency rule was condemned by Constitutional Court Chairperson Valeriy Zorkin, Khasbulatov, Vice President Aleksandr Rutskoy, and others. Both sides subsequently modified their positions: Yeltsin never formally issued a decree on emergency rule, and conservatives allowed the referendum to take place on April 25, 1993. Yeltsin scored a resounding victory at the polls, but the referendum failed to resolve the power struggle. In September 1993 Yeltsin removed Rutskoy as vice president on charges of corruption, an action opposed by the parliament. In the same month Yeltsin issued a decree dissolving parliament, due to resistance of conservative deputies to the work of the Constituent Assembly. The parliament responded by denouncing Yeltsin's actions as unconstitutional and declaring Rutskoy president. About 100 deputies and several hundred armed supporters, led by Khasbulatov and Aleksandr Rutskoy, occupied the parliament building, also known as the White House, and refused to disband. A tense stalemate between government and rebel forces lasted several days. It was broken when rebel supporters staged an attack on the mayor's office and a television center. The government responded by shelling the parliament building and arresting the occupiers. More than 140 people died in the rebellion and its dispersal by government forces. On October 4, 1993, Rutskoy and Khasbulatov were taken prisoner and charged with inciting mass disorder. Yeltsin's victory over conservative forces was short-lived, however. The December 1993 elections gave an unexpected boost to the ultra-nationalist and communist parties, especially the Liberal Democratic party, led by Vladimir Zhirinovsky. In February 1994 the newly elected State Duma cleared Rutskoy, Khasbulatov, and others of charges relating to the October 1993 uprising, and it granted amnesty to the organizers of the August 1991 coup against Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Yeltsin responded to the gains made by ultra-conservatives by declaring his willingness to run for a second term, in order to keep the presidency out of the hands of reactionaries. In June 1994 Russia joined the Partnership for Peace program, following other former Soviet-bloc nations in aligning itself more closely with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). | ||||||||||||||||||
